Turning

Forces in the Turn

An aircraft turns by banking. When the wings are tilted, the total lift vector is tilted as well. The horizontal component of lift acts as the centripetal force that pulls the aircraft toward the center of the turn.

In a banked turn, lift can be resolved into two components:

• Vertical component — supports the weight of the aircraft (acts upward, opposing gravity).
• Horizontal component — acts toward the center of the turn, providing the centripetal force needed to curve the flight path.

The steeper the bank angle, the greater the horizontal component — and the tighter the turn for a given airspeed.

Use of Controls

Ailerons — Rolling Into the Turn

Ailerons are the primary control for establishing and adjusting bank angle. Deflecting the control wheel (or stick) in the direction of the desired turn raises one aileron and lowers the other, creating a difference in lift between the wings that rolls the aircraft.

Adverse Yaw

When ailerons are deflected, the wing going up (with the lowered aileron) produces more lift — and therefore more induced drag — than the wing going down. This differential drag causes the nose to yaw away from the direction of the turn. This effect is called adverse yaw.

Once Established

After the desired bank angle is established, very little rudder is needed to maintain coordination. The ailerons are neutralized (or nearly so) to hold the bank constant.

Overbanking Tendency

In an established turn, the outer wing travels faster than the inner wing (it has a larger radius). Because it moves faster, it generates more lift — creating a tendency to overbank. You will need a small amount of aileron pressure away from the turn to prevent the bank from increasing beyond 30°.

Increased Lift Requirement

Because only the vertical component of lift supports the aircraft's weight in a turn, the total lift must be increased to maintain altitude. This is achieved by applying back pressure on the control column, which increases the angle of attack.

Effect on Stall Speed

The increased angle of attack in a turn has several consequences:

• More induced drag — the aircraft tends to slow down (approximately 5 knots at 30° bank if power is unchanged).
• Higher stall speed — at 30° bank, stall speed increases by approximately 7% compared to straight and level flight.
• Reduced stall margin — the gap between your flying speed and the stall speed narrows.

Climbing Turns

When combining a climb with a turn:

• Establish the climb first, then roll into the turn.
• Limit bank angle to a maximum of 15° — the reduced airspeed in a climb means less margin above stall.
• The outer wing (traveling faster) has a greater angle of attack, which increases the overbanking tendency. You need to actively "hold off" bank with opposite aileron.
• Rate of climb is reduced during turning — the vertical component of lift is less while banked, and some energy goes into turning.

Descending Turns

When combining a descent with a turn:

• Establish the descent first, then roll into the turn.
• Bank angle may be up to 30° — the higher airspeed in a descent provides greater stall margin.
• In a descending turn, the inner wing has a higher angle of attack. This creates a tendency for the aircraft to roll out of the turn (opposite to the overbanking tendency in level turns).
• You need to "hold on" bank — maintain aileron pressure into the turn to keep the bank constant.

Effect of Offset Seating

In side-by-side seating aircraft, the pilot's eye position is offset from the aircraft centerline. This creates a visual illusion during turns:

• In a left turn, the nose appears to be pitched higher than it actually is.
• In a right turn, the nose appears to be pitched lower than it actually is.

Be aware of this illusion and cross-check your instruments (altimeter, VSI) to confirm you are maintaining level flight during turns.

Turning onto Headings — Heading Indicator

The heading indicator (HI) is the primary reference for turning onto a specific heading. Because it takes time to roll the wings level, you must anticipate the rollout.

For example, if turning left from 360° to a heading of 270°, begin rolling wings level as the heading indicator passes through 285° (270° + 15°).

Turning onto Headings — Magnetic Compass

The magnetic compass suffers from turning errors caused by the dip of the Earth's magnetic field. In the Northern Hemisphere, the compass lags behind in northerly turns and leads ahead in southerly turns.

On easterly and westerly headings, compass turning errors are minimal. The 30° figure is approximate and applies at mid-latitudes — your instructor will discuss local variations.

Purpose

To turn the aircraft onto selected headings during level, climbing, and descending flight using coordinated medium turns (30° bank).

Airmanship

• Before turning: Look over your shoulder in the direction of the turn, scan across, then back. Clear the area you are turning into.
• High-wing aircraft: Lift the wing (momentarily shallow the bank or roll slightly toward the turn) to visually check below the wing before committing to the turn.
• During the turn: Maintain a continuous lookout scan — do not fixate on instruments.
• After the turn: Re-orient yourself. Confirm your new heading and check your position relative to landmarks, traffic, and airspace.

Entering the Turn

The technique for entering a medium turn is summarized as Bank — Balance — Back Pressure:

1. Bank: Apply aileron in the direction of the turn to roll to 30° of bank. Use a smooth, positive control input.
2. Balance: Apply rudder in the same direction as the aileron to coordinate the turn and counteract adverse yaw. Keep the ball centered.
3. Back Pressure: As the bank establishes, progressively apply back pressure on the control column to increase the angle of attack and maintain altitude.

Maintaining the Turn

Once established at 30° bank:

• Bank: Hold with ailerons. Correct for the overbanking tendency with slight aileron pressure away from the turn.
• Balance: Keep the ball centered with rudder. Only small adjustments should be needed.
• Back Pressure: Maintain constant back pressure to hold altitude. Cross-check the altimeter and VSI.

Returning to Straight Flight

1. Anticipate: Begin rolling out approximately 15° before reaching your target heading (half the bank angle).
2. Roll out: Apply coordinated aileron and rudder to smoothly return to wings level. The rudder counteracts adverse yaw during the roll-out just as it did during roll-in.
3. Release back pressure: As the wings come level, progressively release the back pressure to avoid climbing. Return to the straight-and-level pitch attitude.

Climbing Turns

• Establish the climb first — set climb power, adopt climb attitude, allow airspeed to settle.
• Roll into a gentle turn: maximum 15° bank.
• Accept a slightly lower pitch attitude to maintain the climb speed — do not let the aircraft slow excessively.
• Expect a reduced rate of climb during the turn.
• Counteract the overbanking tendency by holding off bank with opposite aileron.
• Roll wings level before transitioning back to level flight.

Descending Turns

• Establish the descent first — reduce power (or close throttle for a glide), adopt descent attitude.
• Roll into the turn: up to 30° bank is acceptable due to the higher airspeed.
• Maintain the correct glide or descent airspeed using attitude (pitch).
• Be aware the rate of descent will increase during the turn.
• Counteract the tendency to roll out — in a descending turn, the inner wing has a higher angle of attack, which pushes the aircraft toward wings level. Apply aileron pressure to "hold on" the bank.

Slipping Turns

A slipping turn (or sideslip in a turn) is a deliberate cross-control technique: the aircraft is banked toward the turn while opposite rudder is applied.

• The bank provides the turning force, while the opposite rudder increases drag and steepens the descent without increasing airspeed.
• Greater slip (more opposite rudder) produces a greater rate of descent.
• Useful for losing altitude on final approach without gaining excessive speed — for example, when high on the approach path.

Lesson Summary

In this lesson you have learned to perform smooth, accurate medium turns onto selected headings. You can now:

• Enter, maintain, and roll out of coordinated 30° bank turns in level flight.
• Perform climbing turns (15° bank maximum) and descending turns (up to 30° bank), including level-off procedures.
• Understand and compensate for adverse yaw using coordinated rudder inputs.
• Recognize the reduced stall margin in turns and maintain adequate airspeed.
• Anticipate rollout using the heading indicator (half bank angle = 15° for a 30° bank turn).
• Apply the UNOS rule when turning onto headings using the magnetic compass.
• Use a slipping turn to increase descent rate without gaining airspeed.

Key Takeaways

Looking Ahead

Turning is fundamental to virtually all phases of flight. You will apply these skills immediately in the pattern (traffic pattern) flying, navigation, and instrument procedures. The ability to turn accurately and smoothly onto headings while maintaining altitude is one of the most important building blocks for your future flying.

In your next lesson, you will learn about descending — controlling the aircraft's descent path using power and attitude to manage rate of descent, descent angle, and airspeed.

Preflight Discussion

Aviator.NYC Lesson Plan

Briefing Topics

• Traffic pattern legs
• CTAF, ATIS, Ground, and Tower communication
• Part 61 vs Part 141
• Full checklist flow review

Simulator Session

1. Start and Taxi using real weather
2. Full Pattern Work — traffic patterns with radio calls
3. Radio Phraseology — CTAF and Tower
4. Airport Familiarity — KFRG, KCDW, KHPN diagrams
5. Evaluate Airports — Class D vs Class C

Debrief

Review crosswind management and flight school evaluation options.

Pilot Preparation

• Visit 1–2 flight schools
• Watch Sporty's Airspace Series
• Study the NYC sectional chart

Skill Items

Skill	D P 1 2 3 4 5 6
Preflight Inspection
Engine Starting
Taxi & Before Takeoff Check
Radio Communications
Normal Takeoff and Climbs
Gentle Climbing Turns
Revise Effects of Primary Controls
Revise Attitude Selection & Maintenance
Medium Turns
Steep Turns
Slow Flight (With & Without Flaps)
Use Of Trim
Use of Flaps, Mixture, Carb Heat
Revise Entry, Maintaining, Leveling Off from a Descent
Entry, Maintaining, Leveling Off from a Descent
Approach Planning & Altimeter Setting
Normal Landing
After Landing Parking and Securing

Date

Aircraft

Student

Instructor

Remarks

Radio Communication Scenarios

Practice VFR radio calls for this lesson. Listen to the scenario, then formulate your response before revealing the full exchange.

1 Flight Following with Approach KRNM

You are in N106ST, 30 miles northwest of Ramona Airport at 6,500 feet, en route to Corona Municipal Airport. Your current heading is 320. You are talking to SoCal Approach on 127.3.

AirportEn route to Corona Municipal (KAJO)

Position30mi NW of Ramona (KRNM), 6,500 ft

FrequencySoCal Approach 127.3

Airport TypeEn route (Radar Services)

Your Turn

You're already receiving radar services. If the controller gives you a traffic advisory, acknowledge it: "traffic in sight" or "negative contact."

• You (Pilot) "SoCal Approach, november-one-zero-six-sierra-tango, three-zero northwest of Ramona, six thousand five hundred, request flight following to Corona Municipal."
• SoCal Approach "november-one-zero-six-sierra-tango, SoCal Approach, squawk four-five-two-one."
• You (Pilot) "Squawk four-five-two-one, six-sierra-tango."
• SoCal Approach "november-one-zero-six-sierra-tango, radar contact three-zero miles northwest of Ramona, six thousand five hundred. Corona altimeter three-zero-one-two."
• You (Pilot) "Three-zero-one-two, six-sierra-tango."

2 Request Frequency from FSS KFOD

You are in N106ST, 5 miles northwest of the Mitchell VOR in South Dakota at 7,500 feet, en route to Fort Dodge Regional Airport in Iowa. You'd like flight following but only have a sectional — you need to contact FSS to get the right frequency.

AirportEn route to Fort Dodge Regional (KFOD)

PositionOver Mitchell VOR (SD), 7,500 ft

FrequencyFSS 122.2

Airport TypeEn route

Your Turn

Contact Flight Service and request a frequency for flight following in your area. Include your callsign, position, altitude, destination, and what you need.

• You (Pilot) "Radio, november-one-zero-six-sierra-tango, over Mitchell VOR, seven thousand five hundred, en route Fort Dodge. Request frequency for flight following."
• FSS (Radio) "november-one-zero-six-sierra-tango, Radio, contact Minneapolis Center on one-two-four point zero for flight following."
• You (Pilot) "One-two-four point zero, six-sierra-tango. Thank you."