Straight and Level Flight
Learn to maintain straight and level flight at a constant altitude, heading, and airspeed, in balance, at various power settings and configurations. This is the fundamental cruise condition from which all other maneuvers begin and end.
Lesson Objectives
- Maintain straight and level flight at a constant altitude (±100 ft), heading (±10°), and airspeed (±10 kt)
- Trim the aircraft for hands-off flight at various power settings
- Maintain level flight during configuration changes (flaps, power)
- Understand the relationship between pitch, power, and performance
Straight and level flight is the condition in which an airplane maintains a constant altitude and a constant direction at a specified airspeed. It sounds simple, but achieving precise, coordinated straight and level flight requires a solid understanding of the forces acting on the airplane and an active scan both inside and outside the cockpit.
Two-Flight Exercise
This exercise is often split across two flights. The first flight focuses on normal cruise straight and level. The second flight introduces flying straight and level at differing airspeeds — slow safe cruise, maximum range, and maximum endurance configurations.
Simulator Practice
At Aviator.NYC, our FAA-approved AATD simulator with G1000 NXi is ideal for practicing straight and level flight at various airspeeds. The PFD trend vectors and flight director make it easy to see deviations and refine your Power-Attitude-Trim technique.
Background Briefing Topics
- The Four Forces
- Lift and Factors Affecting Lift
- Drag — Parasite and Induced
- Stability in Pitch
- Stability in Roll
- Stability in Yaw
- Power + Attitude = Performance
- Slow Safe Cruise
- Maximum Range Airspeed
- Maximum Endurance Airspeed
- Flight at Critically High Airspeed
Read the full Background Briefing →
Flight Exercise Topics
The Four Forces
Four forces act on an airplane in flight:
- Weight
- Acts vertically downward through the center of gravity (CG). It is the force of gravity on the airplane and everything in it.
- Lift
- Acts perpendicular to the relative wind, generated primarily by the wings. In level flight, lift acts upward to oppose weight.
- Thrust
- The forward force produced by the engine and propeller. It accelerates the airplane and opposes drag.
- Drag
- The rearward resistance of the airplane moving through the air. It opposes thrust and acts parallel to the relative wind.
Equilibrium in Straight and Level Flight
For an airplane to maintain straight and level unaccelerated flight, the four forces must be in equilibrium:
- Lift = Weight — the airplane neither climbs nor descends.
- Thrust = Drag — the airplane neither accelerates nor decelerates.
If any force changes without a compensating adjustment, the airplane will depart from its straight and level condition. Your job as a pilot is to detect and correct these deviations promptly.
Lift and Factors Affecting Lift
Lift is generated when air flows over the wing, creating lower pressure on the upper surface and higher pressure on the lower surface. Two primary factors under the pilot's control affect the amount of lift produced:
Angle of Attack (AoA)
The angle of attack is the angle between the wing's chord line and the relative wind. Increasing the angle of attack increases lift — up to a point.
- In normal cruise flight, the angle of attack is approximately 4 degrees.
- As AoA increases, lift increases — until the critical angle of attack is reached (approximately 14-16 degrees for most light airplanes).
- Beyond the critical angle, airflow separates from the upper wing surface and lift decreases rapidly — this is a stall.
No AoA Instrument
Most light training airplanes do not have an angle of attack indicator. You judge AoA indirectly through airspeed, pitch attitude, and aircraft behavior. Some newer aircraft (and the G1000 NXi) offer AoA displays, but you should not become dependent on them.
Airspeed
Lift increases with the square of airspeed. Double the airspeed and lift increases four times (all else being equal). This is why at higher speeds, only a small angle of attack is needed to support the airplane's weight, and at lower speeds, a greater angle of attack is required.
Drag
Drag is the total aerodynamic resistance opposing the airplane's motion through the air. It has two main components:
Parasite Drag
Parasite drag is caused by the airplane's shape, surface friction, and any protrusions (antennas, landing gear, etc.) moving through the air. It increases with the square of airspeed — double the speed, four times the parasite drag.
Induced Drag
Induced drag is a byproduct of lift production. The wing tip vortices and downwash create this rearward component of the lift force. Induced drag is greatest at slow speeds and high angles of attack — exactly when the wing is working hardest to produce lift.
Total Drag Curve
When you plot parasite drag and induced drag together against airspeed, you get the total drag curve:
- At low speeds: induced drag dominates (high AoA needed for lift).
- At high speeds: parasite drag dominates (airframe resistance).
- The minimum point on the total drag curve represents the speed at which total drag is lowest — this is significant for range and endurance.
Simulator Practice
In the AATD with G1000 NXi, experiment with different power settings and airspeeds. Watch the fuel flow readout and groundspeed — you will see the practical effects of the drag curve on fuel consumption at various speeds.
Stability in Pitch
An airplane is designed to be longitudinally stable — meaning that if disturbed in pitch, it tends to return to its original attitude without pilot input.
How It Works
The center of gravity (CG) is positioned ahead of the center of lift (also called the center of pressure). This creates a natural nose-down pitching tendency. The horizontal stabilizer (tailplane) produces a downward force to balance this couple and maintain the desired pitch attitude.
Effect of CG Position
- Forward CG: More stable, but requires more tail-down force and more back pressure/trim. Harder to maneuver and slightly less efficient (the tail down-force means the wing must produce more lift than the airplane's weight).
- Aft CG: Less stable, lighter control forces, potentially unstable. If the CG moves behind the aft limit, the airplane may become uncontrollable in pitch.
Safety — CG Limits
The Pilot's Operating Handbook (POH) specifies forward and aft CG limits for your airplane. Never fly outside these limits. An out-of-limits CG can make the airplane uncontrollable regardless of pilot skill. Always complete a weight and balance calculation before flight.
Stability in Roll
Most training airplanes have positive lateral stability — if a wing drops, the airplane tends to return to wings-level without pilot input. The primary design feature providing this stability is wing dihedral.
How Dihedral Works
Dihedral is the upward angle of the wings as viewed from the front of the airplane. When a wing drops and the airplane begins to sideslip:
- The lower wing meets the relative airflow at a higher angle of attack.
- The higher wing meets it at a lower angle of attack.
- The lower wing produces more lift, rolling the airplane back toward level.
This self-correcting tendency is why you can momentarily release the controls and the airplane will tend to return to wings-level (assuming it is properly trimmed and in smooth air).
Stability in Yaw
The vertical stabilizer (fin) provides directional stability. If the airplane yaws — for example, due to a gust — the fin is presented to the airflow at an angle. This creates a sideways aerodynamic force on the fin that weathercocks the airplane back into alignment with the relative wind, like a weather vane.
The larger the fin area and the farther it is behind the CG, the stronger this stabilizing effect.
Power + Attitude = Performance
This is one of the most important concepts in early flight training:
Key Concept
Power controls altitude (rate of climb or descent). Attitude controls airspeed. For any given power setting and pitch attitude, the airplane will settle at a specific airspeed and rate of climb or descent. Change one, and the other changes too.
In straight and level flight, the sequence is always Power — Attitude — Trim (P-A-T):
- Power: Set the desired power for the airspeed/configuration you want.
- Attitude: Adjust the pitch attitude to maintain altitude at the new power setting.
- Trim: Trim away the control pressure so you can fly hands-off in the new configuration.
This sequence applies to every transition between flight configurations — it is worth committing to memory immediately.
Slow Safe Cruise
Slow safe cruise is a reduced-speed configuration useful when you need more time to assess your situation — for example, when temporarily lost or encountering deteriorating weather.
- Reduce power to a lower cruise setting.
- Once airspeed is below VFE (maximum flap extended speed), deploy the first stage of flap.
- Adjust pitch attitude (nose slightly lower than clean cruise) to maintain altitude.
- Trim for the new configuration.
The result is a lower groundspeed, giving you more time to navigate, check charts, and make decisions — while remaining in a safe, stable flight condition.
Maximum Range Airspeed
The maximum range airspeed gives you the greatest distance per unit of fuel burned. It occurs at the speed where the ratio of speed to drag is highest — slightly above the minimum drag speed (L/D max).
- Useful for long cross-country flights or when fuel is a concern.
- Found in the POH performance tables for your airplane.
- Typically close to the best glide speed (since both relate to minimum drag).
Maximum Endurance Airspeed
The maximum endurance airspeed allows you to remain airborne for the longest time on a given fuel load. It occurs at the speed requiring minimum power — slightly below the minimum drag speed.
- Useful when you need to hold or orbit (e.g., waiting for weather to clear at your destination).
- Lower than maximum range speed.
- The airplane is flying "on the back side of the power curve" — be aware that at speeds below this, maintaining altitude requires more power, not less.
Flight at Critically High Airspeed
The airspeed indicator has colored arcs that define operating limits:
| Arc/Mark | Speed | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Green Arc | VS1 to VNO | Normal operating range |
| Yellow Arc | VNO to VNE | Caution range — smooth air only |
| Red Line | VNE | Never exceed speed |
Maneuvering Speed (VA)
VA (maneuvering speed) is the maximum speed at which you may apply full, abrupt control deflection without risking structural damage. Above VA, aggressive control inputs can overstress the airframe.
- VA decreases with lighter weight (lighter airplane stalls sooner, limiting the load factor).
- Above VNO (top of green arc), fly in smooth air only and avoid abrupt control inputs.
- Never intentionally exceed VNE (red line) under any circumstance.
Safety — High Speed Flight
In turbulence, reduce airspeed to at or below VA. Operating in the yellow arc during turbulence risks structural damage. If you find yourself approaching VNE, reduce power immediately and, if necessary, use a gentle pitch-up to slow down.
Purpose
To fly at a constant altitude, in a constant direction, at a specified airspeed, in balance. This is the baseline flight condition from which all maneuvers begin and to which they return.
Airmanship
- VFE awareness: Always know the maximum flap extension speed before selecting flap. In the Cessna 172S, VFE is 110 KIAS (10 degrees) and 85 KIAS (full flap). Exceeding VFE with flaps extended risks structural damage to the flap mechanism.
- Location awareness: Begin developing your mental map of the local training area. Note landmarks, town boundaries, and the relationship of your position to the airport.
- Lookout discipline: Maintain a continuous scan outside the cockpit. Instruments confirm what you see outside — not the other way around.
Collision Avoidance
Understanding right-of-way rules is essential for safe flight. The FAA rules (14 CFR 91.113) establish priorities:
Right-of-Way Priority (Descending)
- Aircraft in distress
- Balloons
- Gliders
- Airships
- Aircraft towing other aircraft or objects
- Powered aircraft
Collision Avoidance Rules
- Head-on approach
- Both aircraft alter course to the right.
- Converging
- The aircraft with the other on its right gives way. (The aircraft on the right has the right of way.)
- Overtaking
- The overtaking aircraft alters course to the right to pass well clear.
Safety — See and Avoid
The "see and avoid" principle is a fundamental responsibility in VFR flight. No amount of right-of-way knowledge helps if you do not see the other aircraft in time. Effective lookout is your primary defense against mid-air collision.
Maintaining Constant Level
The sequence is always Power — Attitude — Trim:
- Set power for the desired cruise configuration.
- Set attitude — position the nose on the natural horizon to maintain altitude. The horizon reference is your primary level-flight cue.
- Trim — remove control pressure so the airplane holds attitude without continuous input.
Cross-check the altimeter and airspeed indicator periodically to confirm your outside references are accurate. If the altimeter shows a deviation:
- Small correction: adjust pitch attitude slightly, allow airspeed to stabilize, re-trim.
- Larger correction (more than 100 ft): consider a brief power adjustment along with attitude change.
Simulator Practice
In the AATD with G1000 NXi, use the altitude trend vector on the PFD to catch deviations early. Practice trimming until the trend vector disappears — this indicates zero rate of altitude change.
Maintaining Constant Direction
To fly a constant heading:
- Wings level: Use the ailerons to keep wings level. A wing-low attitude causes a turn.
- Distant reference point: Select a landmark on the horizon ahead and fly toward it. This gives an immediate visual cue if you are drifting off heading.
- Heading indicator: Cross-check the heading indicator (or HSI on the G1000) periodically. If the heading changes, level the wings and correct back to the desired heading.
Remember that the heading indicator precesses over time and should be realigned with the magnetic compass every 15 minutes during straight and level flight.
Maintaining Balanced Flight
The airplane is in balance (coordinated flight) when the balance ball (inclinometer) is centered. The rule is simple:
Tread on the Ball
If the ball is displaced to the left, apply left rudder. If displaced to the right, apply right rudder. "Step on the ball" to return it to the center. In cruise, a slight right rudder pressure is often needed to counter engine torque effects.
Uncoordinated flight is inefficient (it increases drag), uncomfortable for passengers, and at slow speeds can lead to a spin entry. Keep the ball centered at all times.
Transitioning to a Higher Airspeed
To increase airspeed while maintaining altitude:
- Power: Increase power smoothly to the setting for your target airspeed.
- Attitude: As the airplane accelerates, it will tend to climb. Progressively lower the nose attitude to maintain altitude. The nose position on the horizon will be slightly lower than at the previous (slower) cruise speed.
- Trim: Once stabilized at the new airspeed and altitude, trim forward to relieve control pressure.
Allow the airplane time to accelerate and stabilize — do not chase the instruments with constant adjustments.
Transitioning to a Lower Airspeed
To decrease airspeed while maintaining altitude:
- Power: Reduce power smoothly to the setting for your target airspeed.
- Attitude: As the airplane decelerates, it will tend to descend. Progressively raise the nose attitude to maintain altitude. The nose position on the horizon will be slightly higher than at the previous (faster) cruise speed.
- Trim: Once stabilized at the new airspeed and altitude, trim aft to relieve control pressure.
Be Patient
The airplane takes time to decelerate. Avoid raising the nose aggressively — this causes a climb followed by a descent as the airplane slows. Make smooth, progressive adjustments and wait for the airplane to settle.
Slow Safe Cruise
When you need to reduce groundspeed for better situational awareness (e.g., uncertain of position, marginal weather):
- Reduce power to a lower cruise setting.
- Allow the airplane to decelerate. Raise the nose slightly to maintain altitude.
- Below VFE: Select the first stage of flap (10 degrees).
- Adjust attitude: The flap will cause a pitch-up and some drag increase. Lower the nose slightly to maintain altitude and the desired reduced airspeed.
- Trim for the new configuration.
This configuration gives you more time to navigate and make decisions while remaining in a completely safe flight condition with good stall margins.
Lookout Supplement
Effective lookout is a skill that must be actively developed. Here are the key principles:
Where to Look
- Focus your scan approximately 10 degrees above and below the horizon — this is where most traffic will appear.
- Scan at least 60 degrees each side of your flight path.
- Focus on distant objects rather than close to the airplane — your eyes naturally rest at about 3-4 feet when unfocused, which is useless for spotting traffic.
How to Scan
- Block method: Divide the sky into segments and systematically scan each block, pausing to focus for 1-2 seconds in each segment.
- Wandering method: Move your eyes in a less structured pattern but ensure all areas are covered. Some pilots prefer this after the block method becomes habitual.
- Avoid staring at one point — your peripheral vision is good at detecting motion, but you need focused vision to identify aircraft.
The Constant-Bearing Threat
Constant Bearing = Constant Danger
If another aircraft appears at a constant relative bearing (it does not move across your windscreen), you are on a collision course. The apparent size will grow but there will be no relative motion — making it very hard to detect. This is why systematic scanning is critical.
Practical Tips
- Clock code: Use clock positions to communicate traffic (e.g., "traffic at 2 o'clock, same altitude").
- Clean windscreen: A dirty or scratched windscreen dramatically reduces your ability to spot traffic. Clean it before every flight.
- Look after your eyes: Use quality sunglasses (non-polarized for glass cockpit compatibility), stay hydrated, and be aware that fatigue degrades visual acuity.
- Move your head: Do not rely only on eye movement. Turn your head to check blind spots, especially behind the wing strut and door pillar.
Simulator Limitation
The AATD cannot replicate real-world lookout scanning. Use simulator time to build instrument scan habits and P-A-T technique, but practice your visual scan exclusively in the airplane.
What You Have Learned
In this lesson, you developed the ability to fly accurately in straight and level flight at various airspeeds and configurations. Specifically, you can now:
- Maintain a constant altitude, heading, and airspeed using the Power — Attitude — Trim sequence.
- Transition smoothly between different cruise airspeeds (normal cruise, slow safe cruise, increased speed) while maintaining altitude.
- Keep the airplane in balance using coordinated rudder inputs.
- Explain how the four forces interact in equilibrium during unaccelerated flight.
Stability and Design
You now understand the design features that make the airplane inherently stable:
- Longitudinal stability (pitch): CG ahead of center of pressure, balanced by the tailplane.
- Lateral stability (roll): Wing dihedral creates a restoring force when a wing drops.
- Directional stability (yaw): The vertical fin weathercocks the airplane into the relative wind.
You also understand why CG limits must never be exceeded and how CG position affects handling characteristics.
Lookout and Situational Awareness
This lesson introduced the foundations of effective lookout scanning:
- Systematic scan techniques (block and wandering methods).
- Focusing on the correct area of sky (10 degrees above/below horizon, 60 degrees each side).
- Understanding the constant-bearing collision threat.
- Developing local area awareness — knowing where you are in relation to the airport and training area landmarks.
Collision Avoidance
You know the basic right-of-way rules for VFR flight:
- Head-on: both alter right.
- Converging: give way to the aircraft on your right.
- Overtaking: pass to the right.
- Right-of-way priority order (balloons, gliders, airships, towing, powered).
Looking Ahead
With straight and level flight mastered, you are ready to learn turning — combining bank angle with coordinated rudder to change direction while maintaining altitude. The Power-Attitude-Trim technique and lookout habits you developed in this lesson will carry directly into your turning practice.
Before Your Next Lesson
Use the AATD with G1000 NXi to consolidate your straight and level skills. Practice transitioning between different airspeeds, paying attention to the power settings and nose attitudes required for each. The more automatic these become, the more capacity you will have available for learning turns.
Coming Up Next: Lesson 5 — Turning
Learn to perform medium turns — 30° bank (normal level turn) — onto selected headings in level, climbing, and descending flight.
Preflight Discussion
Aviator.NYC Lesson Plan
Briefing Topics
- Pitot-static and gyroscopic instruments
- Six-pack vs G1000
- Common instrument failure modes
- FAA Medical Certificate classes
Simulator Session
- Instrument Familiarization
- Partial Panel Demo — simulated pitot/static failure
- Instrument Maneuvers — attitude indicator, airspeed, VSI
- Return to VFR
- ForeFlight Demo — approach charts, METARs
Debrief
Review instrument limitations and schedule FAA Medical exam.
Milestone
Schedule FAA Medical Certificate exam with an Aviation Medical Examiner (AME).
Pilot Preparation
- Schedule AME appointment
- Review traffic pattern legs
- Read PHAK Chapter 14
Skill Items
| Skill | D P 1 2 3 4 5 6 |
|---|---|
| Preflight Inspection | |
| Engine Starting | |
| Taxi & Before Takeoff Check | |
| Radio Communications | |
| Normal Takeoff and Climbs | |
| Gentle Climbing Turns | |
| Revise Effects of Primary Controls | |
| Revise Attitude Selection & Maintenance | |
| Medium Turns | |
| Use Of Trim | |
| Use Flaps, Mixture, Carb Heat | |
| Revise Entry, Maintaining, Leveling Off from a Descent | |
| Approach Planning & Altimeter Setting | |
| Normal Landing | |
| After Landing Parking and Securing |
Radio Communication Scenarios
Practice VFR radio calls for this lesson. Listen to the scenario, then formulate your response.
You are in N106ST on the ramp at Mansfield Lahm Municipal Airport, ready to depart to the northwest. You have listened to ATIS and have information Charlie. Call Mansfield Ground and request taxi to the runway.
Check Transcript
Mansfield Lahm Municipal Airport information Charlie. 1400 Zulu weather. Wind 200 at 12, gusts 18. Visibility 10. Skies clear below 12,000. Temperature 25, dewpoint 10. Altimeter 3002. Visual approaches in use. Landing and departing runway 14. Runway 32 closed. Read back all hold short instructions and runway assignments. Advise on initial contact you have information Charlie.
Contact Ground for taxi. Include: facility name, callsign, location, ATIS identifier, and request. Note the crosswind — what's the component on runway one-four?
- You (Pilot)"Mansfield Ground, november-one-zero-six-sierra-tango, general aviation ramp with information Charlie, request taxi, departing northwest."
- Mansfield Ground"november-one-zero-six-sierra-tango, Mansfield Ground, runway one-four, taxi via Alpha."
- You (Pilot)"Runway one-four, taxi via Alpha, six-sierra-tango."
You are in N106ST on the General Aviation Ramp at Mansfield Lahm Municipal and want to practice a few touch-and-goes. You have listened to ATIS and have information Charlie. Contact Mansfield Ground and make your request.
Check Transcript
Mansfield Lahm Municipal Airport information Charlie. 1400 Zulu weather. Wind 200 at 12, gusts 18. Visibility 10. Skies clear below 12,000. Temperature 25, dewpoint 10. Altimeter 3002. Visual approaches in use. Landing and departing runway 14. Runway 32 closed. Read back all hold short instructions and runway assignments. Advise on initial contact you have information Charlie.
Request taxi for closed traffic. Same format as a normal taxi request, but state your intentions.
- You (Pilot)"Mansfield Ground, november-one-zero-six-sierra-tango, general aviation ramp with information Charlie, request taxi for closed traffic."
- Mansfield Ground"november-one-zero-six-sierra-tango, Mansfield Ground, runway one-four, taxi via Alpha. Expect left closed traffic."
- You (Pilot)"Runway one-four, taxi via Alpha, left closed traffic, six-sierra-tango."
These lesson plans are provided as supplementary training guidance only. They do not supersede FAA publications, aircraft manufacturer documentation, or your instructor's direction. Always refer to the FAA Instrument Flying Handbook, Airplane Flying Handbook, AIM, and applicable POH/AFM as the official sources.