1.1. Considerations:

Speed Control

(Throttle controls speed. Forward is more power, and rearwards is less power)

• More power is required to get started and overcome inertia

(Minimum power setting)

• Taxi speed is affected by surface, slope, wind, and power used
• Should be no faster than walking pace
• May need occasional gentle (cadence) braking to maintain the taxi speed while maintaining the recommended power setting

(Speed = fast walking pace)

• Stop by closing the throttle and using the toe brakes to come to a stop
• Park brake is set by holding down the toe brakes and engaging the lever

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Directional Control

• Nosewheel steering is achieved by using the rudder pedals, push on the left rudder and the airplane turns left and vice versa
• Wind affects the speed across the ground. Tailwind makes you go faster, headwind slower, and crosswind will push the tail and make the airplane turn into wind
• Make sure you look at a point in the distance, not one just ahead of the airplane

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Control Positioning

• Complete details are in the Flight Manual
• Aim to deflect the control surface that will be affected by the wind, so the wind cannot 'pick it up'
• Wind from behind — control column forward (elevator deflected downwards), ailerons neutral (Dive Away)
• Wind from ahead — no elevator deflection needed
• Wind from the left — control column left (left aileron raised)
• Wind from the right — control column right (right aileron raised)
• Combination of the above when wind is quartering. For example, wind from the left and behind — control column forward and left (Dive away, & Turn into)

1.2. Airmanship:

• Check the right of way rules
• Check the airport chart
• Check windsock for wind
• Always carry an update AFD
• Radio communication

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1.3. Airplane Management:

• Don't use power vs. brakes
• Seat positioned for full rudder deflection and height
• Engine warm before moving
• Brake check soon after first moving
• Face into wind when stopped (if possible)
• Taxi on centerline
• Watch for wingtip clearance
• No reverse available
• Caution, surface conditions

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1.4. Human Factors:

• Clean windscreen
• Move head and body to avoid blind spots

• Seat is adjusted and comfortable
• Once engine is warm, use enough power to overcome inertia
• Test brakes after moving off
• Maintain safe taxi speed — fast walking pace
• Maintain the centerline (if applicable)
• Turn using the rudder pedals to turn the nosewheel

• Take account of the wind, and the change in the wind as you turn
• Wingtip clearance can be judged using shadows
• Caution slipstream and jet blast from other aircraft
• Slipstream (the air blown back by the propeller), can blow objects and people around behind you
• Stop by applying the toe brakes
• Apply park brake

3.1. Principle of Flight:

• The horizon is the line where the sea meets the sky
• All flying references the airplane's nose with the horizon

The Four Forces

• Lift, Weight, Thrust, Drag
• Equilibrium when Lift=Weight and Thrust=Drag
• Forces don't act through the same point → moment arms → couple
• Changes in Thrust → pitch changes

Lift

• Air over the top accelerates compared to air passing under the wing
• L = CL ½ V2 S
• L = Angle of attack × Airspeed
• Angle of attack altered with elevator

Performance

• Power + Attitude = Performance

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3.2. Airmanship:

• Lookout
• Situation Awareness, Training areas boundaries, clear of cloud
• "I have control / you have control"

3.3. Airplane Management:

• Smooth throttle movements
• Mixture rich

3.4. Human Factors:

• Blind spots
• New learning consistently reinforced in later lessons

3.5. Flight Exercise:

• Horizon
• Power setting
• Attitude for level

Established Straight and Level

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Maintaining Straight and Level

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Regaining Straight and Level

1. Airspeed and power settings correct
2. Attitude correct for straight and level
3. Wings level and balance ball center
4. Reset power
5. P A T

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Straight and Level at Different Airspeeds

• Any changes in power must be balanced with rudder
• While moving rudder wings must be kept level

4.1. Principle of Flight:

Climbing

• Airplane is in equilibrium when climbing
• Lift is not increased
• T must be greater than D
• Rate of climb (climb performance) depends on excess power available

Climbing Performance

Power	More power better climb performance
Altitude	Limits the performance
Weight	↑ weight — ↓ rate of climb
Flap	↑ drag — ↓ rate of climb
Wind	Affects climb angle and distance in climb

Climb Configuration

Performance	Power	Attitude
Best RoC	Full	_______ kts
Best AoC		_______ kts
Cruise		_______ kts
Recommended		_______ kts

Descending

• Airplane is in equilibrium when descending
• Flying speed maintained by lowering nose attitude
• Rate descent is controlled by power
• FCW Balances D

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4.2. Airmanship:

• Situation awareness — what was, is, and will be
• VFR weather minimums
• Minimum and maximum heights
• Lookout — restrictions
• I'M SAFE

4.3. Airplane Management:

• Smooth throttle movement
• Mixture RICH
• Temperatures and pressures

4.4. Human Factors:

• Trapped gases in ear
• Diving
• Empty sky myopia
• Noise

5.1. Principle of Flight:

• In order to turn need to create a force towards the center of the turn — bank the airplane
• HCL provides the force
• VCL reduced → more L required → increase angle of attack slightly

Adverse Yaw

• ↑ L on up going wing, also means ↑ D ↓ yaw away from turn
• Rudder to balance yaw as ailerons deflected — neutral

Overbanking

• Outer wing travels further, more L, tries to keep rolling
• Hold off bank with aileron

Performance

• When climbing and turning, angle of bank must be reduced. Maximum of 20°, use 15°

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5.2. Airmanship:

• 20° per 2 second scan technique
• Lookout and Listenout
• SA — 360° turns, position, altitude, weather
• VFR minimums 1-5-2 rule

5.3. Airplane Management:

• Smooth throttle movement

5.4. Human Factors:

• 360° turns to minimize disorientation
• Turning sensation

5.5. Air Exercise:

Medium Level Turn

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Climbing Turn

Descending Turn

6.1. Principle of Flight:

• 45° AoB
• Avoidance / coordination — practice 360° turn
• Also cover steep gliding turns

Angle of Bank	Load Factor	% ↑ in stall speed	New stall speed
0	1		50
45	1.4	20	60
60	2	40	70
75	4	100	100

• Increased apparent weight increases stall speed
• Increased drag: 100% at 45° AoB, 300% at 60° AoB
• Reduces airspeed → power sandwich
• Need to increase power

Steep Gliding Turn

• Cannot increase power, increase airspeed by lowering nose

Adverse Yaw

• Amount of rudder required to overcome depends on rate of roll
• Low airspeeds require more aileron deflection — more adverse yaw

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6.2. Airmanship:

• Minimum altitude
• PTS Minimums
• Sick Bags

6.3. Airplane Management:

• 100/200 rpm increase

6.4. Human Factors:

• 360° turns
• Effect of G
• Lookout restrictions

6.5. Air Exercise:

• Through 30° AoB increase power and backpressure
• At 45° AoB, check with ailerons, reduce rudder to maintain balance

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Steep Gliding Turn

• Close throttle
• Roll to 45° AoB
• Maintain height until glide speed reached
• Lower the nose to maintain glide speed
• Trim

Considerations:

Power + Attitude = Performance

• L = Angle of Attack × Airspeed
• As airspeed decreases angle of attack must increase to maintain level
• High nose attitude + little extra power required
• Fly the airplane at a slow speed, but above the stall — next lesson
• Less control effectiveness — larger inputs required
• Slipstream effects less — maintain balance
• Medium level turns — need additional power

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7.2. Airmanship:

• 20°/2 second scan
• HASELL checks
• Airplane position in training area
• Warning symptoms of approaching stall

7.3. Airplane Management:

• Smooth but positive throttle and control movements
• Engine operating temperatures
• Use of flap — power requirements

7.4. Human Factors:

• High level of concentration
• Unfamiliar high nose attitudes

7.5. Air Exercise:

Power + Attitude = Performance

Slowing to S + L at Low Airspeed

• Power reduce to decelerate
• Attitude increases as airplane slows — maintain level
• Trim to relieve backpressure
• Adjust power to maintain height
• Airspeed = _______

Maintaining S + L at Low Airspeed

• Lookout
• Attitude
• Instruments

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Turning at Low Airspeed

• To maintain level, Lift must ↑, Drag will ↑, more power required
• Adverse yaw countered with rudder
• Ailerons will need to be deflected more for same roll rate
• Balance with rudder

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Returning to Cruise

• Power increase to full power, balance with rudder
• Attitude lower nose to level attitude
• Trim to relieve pressure
• Reduce to cruise power, balance with rudder
• Lookout
• Attitude
• Instruments

8.1. Principle of Flight:

• L = Angle of Attack × Airspeed
• Smooth airflow over the wing breaks down and becomes turbulent
• Breaks away from upper surface, airplane sinks, nose pitches down

At the Stall

• When the wing stalls there is a ↓ in L and large ↑ in D
• Airplane sinks, C of P moves rearwards → Pitch down

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8.2. Airmanship:

• No pax
• Awareness of aircraft configuration, position and other traffic
• HASELL checks
• Recognize symptoms

8.3. Airplane Management:

• Smooth but positive throttle and control movements
• Preflight — no loose objects

8.4. Human Factors:

• More practice and exposure the better
• Plenty of time between stalls to orientate
• Sick bags

8.5. Air Exercise:

Symptoms

• Low and ↓ airspeed
• High nose attitude
• Less effective controls — higher stick forces
• Stall warning — if fitted
• Buffet (turbulent air from wing striking tailplane)
• Control column will be fully back — no further control movement

At the Stall

• Airplane sinks and nose pitches down

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Recovery at Onset

• Normal situation — when not training
• Recover at stall warning / buffet
• Height loss — 50' maximum

9.1. Considerations:

Takeoff

Slipstream	Strikes tail and yaws airplane
Torque	Tries to rotate airplane and yaws airplane
Keeping straight	With rudder as required — look ahead
Crosswind	Tries to weathervane airplane, keep straight
Headwind	Reduces takeoff roll — always takeoff into wind
Tailwind	Increases takeoff roll
Climb angle	Headwind increases climb angle
Takeoff into wind	To minimize ground roll and distance to 50'
Power	Full power for maximum performance
Flap	Usually not used
Runway length	Calculated length required for takeoff

Landing

Wind	Into wind to reduce ground roll and distance from 50'
Flap	↑ L and D, lower speed and lower nose attitude
Power	Controls RoD, more airflow over elevator and rudder
Brakes	On ground only
Runway length	Calculated length required for landing

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9.2. Airmanship:

• ATC/Traffic
• Checklists • Right of Way rules

Before Landing Flow:

AUTOPILOT	OFF
FUEL SELECTOR	BOTH
MIXTURE	BEST POWER
LIGHTS	ON (aircraft & runway)

9.3. Airplane Management:

• Amps/Alternator functioning correctly
• Temperatures and pressures are in green range
• Altimeter settings

9.4. Human Factors:

• Landing cues
• Workload/priorities

9.5. Air Exercise:

Takeoff

• Reference point • Keep straight
• Hold on brakes and line up checks

Climb Out

• Separation • After takeoff checks • Turn at 500' agl

Crosswind

• Tracking and lookout

Downwind

• Downwind radio call • Checks • Spacing

Base Turn

• Lookout • Airspeed ________
• Reference point
• Power reduced to ________
• Flap — first stage

Base Leg

• Track • Attitude controls airspeed
• Flap — further stage(s)

Final

• Anticipate turn — 500'
• Attitude controls airspeed
• Aim point
• Power controls RoD

Landing

• Landing assured, close throttle
• At 50' nose Progressively raised for roundout / flare
• Look down end of runway
• Progressively increase back pressure to control sink
• Touch down on main wheels
• Let nosewheel settle
• Keep straight
• After-landing checks — clear of runway

9.1. Considerations:

On the Ground

• Airplane has tendency to weathercock into wind
• Position controls to compensate for wind

On Takeoff

• Allow for drift to track along the runway centerline

In the Pattern

• Allow for drift and headwind/tailwind on each leg
• Base leg will be affected the most

On Landing

• As crosswind increases amount of flap used decreases — to improve directional control
• Need to consider overall suitability of runway on crosswind conditions
• Add ½ of gust component to airspeed

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Calculating Crosswind Component

• Need W/V from TAF or METAR
• Convert the direction to Magnetic — apply variation

Vector Diagram — Need pencil, paper, ruler and protractor

Flight Manual Graph

Nav Computer

Windsock

Tower

Formula

• Angular difference between wind and RWY

Plot on watch face

• Percentage of distance around watch face × wind strength = X/W component
• 30° = half wind strength, 60° = full wind strength

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9.2. Airmanship:

• Making the calculation improves Situation Awareness
• Max crosswind is a recommendation, but may be other limits

9.3. Airplane Management:

• Control position on ground wrt wind
• May need to use brakes

9.4. Human Factors:

• Assessing runway suitability — improved ADM

9.5. Air Exercise:

Takeoff

• Line-up, adjust reference point for drift
• Ailerons fully into wind, elevator neutral
• During takeoff roll reduce aileron to neutral by rotate point
• Lift off at slightly higher speed than normal
• After lift-off make a gentle balanced turn into wind

Pattern

Climb-out

• Wings level, in balance
• Adjust heading to track extended centerline

Crosswind

• Reference heading allows for drift
• Expect some headwind or tailwind

Downwind

• Allow for wind on downwind turn
• Track parallel to runway
• Assess runway and decide on speeds and flap setting to use
• Check downwind spacing

Base

• Allow for drift and headwind or tailwind
• Extend all the landing flap
• Anticipate turn onto final

Final

• Track extended centerline
• Power controls rate of descent

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Landing

• Combination of crab and sideslip (wing down) methods

Crab

• Crab into wind
• Just before touchdown, kick rudder to straight the nose, aileron to correct for drift

Wing-down

• From short final
• Wing held down, rudder to keep aligned with centerline — Sideslip
• Land on into wind wheel first

Combination

• Crab wind on final
• During round-out switch to wing down method
• Aileron to stay aligned with centerline, rudder to stay straight
• Into wind wheel touches down first

9.1. Considerations:

Touch and Go

• On runways with enough length can land, retract flap and takeoff without stopping
• Saves time, can do more traffic patterns

Go Around / Go-around

• If for any reason the landing needs to be abandoned
• Full power, raise flap (in increment), climb ahead

Orbit

• 360° medium level turn
• Used to adjust spacing or to hold
• Commonly done downwind

Extend Downwind

• For separation
• Extend the downwind leg, and turn base when instructed

Repositioning

• Usually done downwind, but can be done on any leg
• Change of direction used when there is a change of runway

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Glide Approach

• S t b i fi

Wind Gradient

• Wind strength decreases closer to the ground because of friction
• Affects flare — possible floating

Windshear

• Sudden change in wind speed and/or direction
• Wind needs to be 10 kts or more
• If encounter sudden drop in airspeed and/or altitude — Go Around

Wake Turbulence

• Disturbed air caused by wing producing lift
• Aircraft produces spirals from wingtips
• Avoid by keeping safe distance from aircraft ahead, especially those bigger
• If encounter — Go Around

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9.2. Airmanship:

• Aviate — Navigate — Communicate
• Communication and ATC clearances
• VFR minimum in Pattern

9.3. Airplane Management:

• Checklist Use and other considerations:

9.4. Human Factors:

• Orientation Cues

9.5. Air Exercise:

Touch and Go

• Once nosewheel on runway, raise flap and apply full power
• Keep straight
• Takeoff

Go Around

• Carry out any time a safe landing cannot be made
• Aviate — Navigate — Communicate
• Normal procedure, not emergency
• Full power — beware of pitch change
• Nose to level attitude
• Continue climb out to normal crosswind turning point
• Advise ATC "going around"
• Reduce from full flap
• As speed increases nose on the horizon
• Safe height, safe airspeed, +ve RoC — raise flap
• Track to the right of the runway

10a.1. Principle of Flight:

Definition of Slow Flight

• Slow flight means an airspeed 5 knots faster than the stalling speed
• V_S0 — stalling speed at max weight, full flap, wings level, power off (bottom of white arc)
• V_S1 — stalling speed at max weight, no flap, wings level, power off (bottom of green arc)

Forces During Slow Flight

• L = Angle of Attack × Airspeed
• As airspeed decreases, angle of attack must increase to maintain lift
• Normal cruise: ~4° AoA → Slow flight: ~10° AoA
• Increased AoA increases induced drag

Speed Stability

• Speed-stable (above min power-required airspeed): reduce speed → less drag → airplane accelerates back
• Speed-unstable (below min power-required airspeed): reduce speed → MORE drag → airplane keeps decelerating
• Known as "flying on the back of the drag curve"
• To fly slower, you need MORE power

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Effect of Controls During Slow Flight

• Controls feel 'sloppy' — larger inputs required
• Ailerons very ineffective; adverse yaw more pronounced
• Rudder less effective — coarser pedal inputs needed
• Slipstream helix tighter around fuselage — more yawing effect
• All control movements must be smooth and coordinated
• Do not raise flaps if airspeed is below V_S1

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10a.2. Airmanship:

• 20°/2 second scan
• HASELL checks before beginning
• Airplane position in training area
• Warning symptoms of approaching stall

Abbreviated HELL check between maneuvers: Height, Engine, Location, Lookout

10a.3. Airplane Management:

• Smooth but positive throttle and control movements
• Engine operating temperatures
• Use of flap — power requirements

10a.4. Human Factors:

• High level of concentration required
• Unfamiliar high nose attitudes
• Distractions during slow flight are dangerous — flying the airplane is always priority #1

10a.5. Air Exercise:

Power + Attitude = Performance

Slowing to S+L at Low Airspeed

• Cross-check altimeter and airspeed indicator
• Make minor corrections as necessary
• Note slower airspeed and less effective flying controls
• Airspeed = _______

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Turning at Low Airspeed

• To maintain level, Lift must ↑, Drag will ↑, more power required
• Adverse yaw countered with rudder
• Ailerons need more deflection for same roll rate
• Max 15° angle of bank — stall speed increases with bank

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Returning to Cruise

• Cross-check airspeed and balance indicator
• Make minor corrections as necessary
• LOOKOUT

10b.1. Principle of Flight:

The Forces in a Stall

• Stall occurs when the critical angle of attack is exceeded
• Marked loss of lift from the wings → rapid loss of height
• Stall can occur at ANY airspeed if critical AoA is exceeded
• Center of Pressure moves rearward at stall → nose pitches down (the 'g' break)

Control Effectiveness

• Controls feel 'sloppy' near the stall — larger movements needed
• Ailerons may cause further stalling — do NOT use during stall recovery
• Elevator remains effective — primary recovery control
• Rudder remains effective for directional control

Factors Affecting Stall Speed

Flaps/slats	↓ stalling speed (can fly slower)
Power	↓ stalling speed (thrust assists lift)
Load factor	↑ stalling speed (turns, pull-ups)
Weight	↑ weight = ↑ stalling speed
CG position	Forward CG = slightly ↑ stall speed
Ice/damage	↑ stalling speed, unpredictable
Turning flight	45° AoB = 20% ↑ stall speed

Wing Drop at the Stall

• More likely with: power, flaps, unbalanced flight
• Use opposite rudder to contain wing drop (NOT aileron)
• Keep control column centralized (ailerons neutral)

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10b.2. Airmanship:

• HASELL / HELL checks
• Minimum height: recover by not less than 3000 feet AGL
• Height = Safety
• Stay oriented and aware of location
• Aircraft loading within limits for maneuvers

Symptoms of the Approaching Stall

• Critically slow airspeed, airspeed decreasing
• Stall warning operating
• Sloppy, ineffective controls
• Reduced noise
• Buffeting as airflow separates from wing
• Unusually high nose attitude for the maneuver

Symptoms of the Stall

• Increased buffet
• Airplane pitches nose-down ('g' break)
• Possible wing drop
• Airplane descends

10b.3. Airplane Management:

• Smooth but positive throttle and control movements
• Preflight — no loose objects

Standard Stall Recovery (SSR)

10b.4. Human Factors:

• More practice and exposure the better
• Plenty of time between stalls to orientate
• Sick bags

10b.5. Air Exercise:

Stall Without Power

1. Complete HASELL checks. Note altitude. LOOKOUT
2. Close the throttle completely. Maintain balanced flight
3. Gradually raise nose attitude to prevent descent. Note reducing airspeed
4. Note symptoms: critically slow airspeed, ineffective controls, buffeting, stall warning
5. At the stall — airplane pitches nose-down
6. Release back pressure to unstall the wings. Prevent roll/yaw with rudder
7. As airspeed increases, note loss of height — probably 500 feet

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Stall and Standard Stall Recovery

1. Complete HASELL checks. Note altitude. LOOKOUT
2. Close throttle. Maintain balanced flight. Approach stall as before
3. At the stall — SSR: move control column forward, apply full power. Use rudder to prevent yaw
4. Check airspeed is increasing. Level wings with aileron if necessary
5. Recover gently to the climb. Note reduced height loss — probably 200 feet

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Stall With Power

1. Complete HASELL/HELL checks. LOOKOUT
2. Reduce power to specified setting. Maintain balanced flight
3. Note airspeed slows at a reduced rate
4. Rudder and elevator more effective because of propeller slipstream
5. Airplane reaches higher nose attitude before stall, at a slower airspeed
6. At the stall: SSR. Increased tendency for wing to drop

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Stall With Flap

1. Complete HASELL/HELL checks. LOOKOUT
2. Close throttle. With airspeed slower than V_FE, lower flap
3. Note airspeed reduces at a much greater rate
4. Airplane stalls with lower nose attitude and slower airspeed
5. At the stall: SSR. Increased tendency for wing to drop
6. With extra drag from flaps, airplane takes longer to accelerate. LOOKOUT

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Stall With Power and Flap (Approach Config)

1. Complete HASELL/HELL checks. LOOKOUT
2. Reduce power to specified setting. Lower flap. Maintain balanced flight
3. Stall airspeed will be the slowest yet
4. At the stall: SSR. Greatest tendency for wing to drop

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Recovery at the Incipient (Developing) Stall

1. Complete HASELL/HELL checks. LOOKOUT
2. Approach the stall in configuration advised by instructor
3. Use a specified symptom (usually stall warning) as the signal to start SSR
4. At the incipient stage, the airplane does not need to be pitched as far nose-down
5. There should be little (if any) height loss

11a.1. Principle of Flight:

Causes of a Spin

• For an airplane to spin, it must first stall
• Typically occurs during an uncoordinated maneuver
• Usually caused by misuse of rudder — flying grossly out of balance
• Misuse of ailerons (trying to correct a wing drop with aileron) also increases spin risk
• All factors that increase wing drop risk at the stall increase spin risk

Autorotation

• Down-going wing has higher angle of attack than up-going wing
• Down-going wing creates less lift and more drag
• This escalates yaw and roll toward the down-going wing
• The airplane autorotates without further pilot input

Recovery from the Incipient Spin

• Move control column forward to unstall the wings
• Use sufficient rudder to prevent further yaw
• With wings unstalled, use coordinated controls to recover
• Power is not usually used until recovery is assured

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11a.2. Airmanship:

• HASELL / HELL checks — all stalling considerations apply
• Minimum height: recover by at least 3000 feet AGL
• Height = Safety
• Prevention is better than cure

11a.3. Airplane Management:

• Smooth but positive control movements
• No loose objects in cockpit

11a.4. Human Factors:

• Awareness exercise — knowing how to avoid a stall/spin is the goal
• The pilot's No. 1 priority at all times — fly the airplane

11a.5. Air Exercise:

Spin Entry

1. Complete HASELL/HELL checks. LOOKOUT
2. Proceed as for the approach to the stall
3. At 5–10 knots faster than the stall airspeed, apply full rudder and move the control column fully back
4. The airplane will enter an incipient spin

Note: Your instructor may demonstrate the incipient spin through simulated accidental mis-handling.

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Spin Recovery

1. The incipient spin — note attitude and direction
2. Move the control column forward to unstall the wings. Use sufficient rudder to prevent further yaw
3. With the wings unstalled, use coordinated control actions to regain controlled flight
4. Increase power. Recover to climb at a safe airspeed. LOOKOUT

11b.1. Principle of Flight:

The Wing Drop

• Wings may not stall simultaneously across the whole span
• Airplane rolls toward the wing that stalls first
• The suddenness of the stall determines the rate of roll

Autorotation

• Down-going wing has higher AoA (beyond critical) → less lift, more drag
• Up-going wing has lower AoA → more lift, less drag
• This differential sustains the roll and yaw without pilot input

Characteristics of the Full Spin

• Descending vertically at up to 3000 feet per minute
• First two turns: marked changes in roll rate, yaw rate, and pitch attitude
• After two turns, airplane settles into steady spin
• Airspeed will be very slow (stalled condition)
• AI and HI may topple — unreliable
• Turn coordinator shows direction of spin — ignore the balance ball

Factors Affecting Spin Characteristics

CG Position	Rearward CG → more likely to spin, harder to recover
Weight	Heavier → slower initial rate, but recovery takes longer
Fuel Balance	Wing tanks should be as balanced as possible
Height	Higher altitude → slightly longer recovery time
Power	Generally unhelpful — keep at idle
Flaps	Most aircraft prohibited from spinning with flaps down
Ailerons	Keep neutral throughout spin and recovery

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11b.2. Airmanship:

• Full HASELL checks before each spin
• Height = Safety — possible height loss of 1500 feet in multi-turn spin
• Stay oriented — look toward the horizon, not straight down
• Count turns by reference to a landmark or the sun
• Know the aircraft's POH/FM recovery procedure — it overrules general advice

The Spiral Dive

• Some aircraft enter a spiral dive rather than a proper spin
• Key difference: airspeed is fast and increasing rapidly during spiral dive (slow and steady in a spin)
• Close throttle, roll wings level, ease out of dive

11b.3. Airplane Management:

• Check aircraft is cleared for spinning (POH/FM)
• Weight and CG within limits for spinning
• Some aircraft have a 'Utility' category with narrower CG range for spins

11b.4. Human Factors:

• 'g' tolerance may be reduced — gentle pull-out from the dive
• Airsickness — tell instructor if unwell
• Clear communication: "Recover now" / "Recovering now"

11b.5. Air Exercise:

The Fully Developed Spin

1. Note low nose attitude and direction of spin
2. Note slow, steady airspeed
3. Note high rate of descent — height decreasing rapidly
4. Note turn coordinator showing direction of spin. Ignore balance ball

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The Spin Recovery

The aircraft's POH/FM may list different recovery actions which overrule this general advice.

12.1. Principle of Flight:

Forces During Takeoff

• Thrust overcomes inertia and accelerates the airplane
• Thrust must also overcome drag and rolling friction of the tires
• At rotation, pilot increases AoA → sufficient lift to leave the ground
• Once airborne, excess thrust over drag governs climb angle

Takeoff Distance vs. Takeoff Run

• Takeoff Run (Ground Roll): distance to become airborne
• Takeoff Distance: distance to become airborne AND clear a 50-foot barrier

Factors Affecting Takeoff Distance

Weight	↑ weight = ↑ takeoff distance
Flap	Small amount may ↓ takeoff run, but reduces climb performance
Air Density	Hot/high/humid = longer takeoff, shallower climb
Runway Surface	Grass adds 25%; wet/soft adds up to 50%
Runway Slope	Downslope ↓ run; upslope ↑ run
Wind	Headwind ↓ ground roll; 5 kt tailwind adds 20% distance

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Effect of Power During Takeoff

• Full power causes yaw to the left (clockwise-rotating propeller)
• Slipstream effect: helix meets fin on left side, yawing airplane left
• Torque effect: engine reaction presses left gear down, causes left yaw
• Both effects most pronounced at slow airspeed + high power

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12.2. Airmanship:

Lookout

• Check approach, runway, and departure areas before calling ready
• Final check before lining up on the runway

Checks

• Pre-takeoff checks completed from memory — not just recited
• Do not rush into takeoff — unlimited time to make the go/no-go decision
• Most takeoff accidents: wrong decision to attempt takeoff in the circumstances

ATC Liaison

• Report "ready for departure" — not "takeoff"
• If in doubt — ask ATC to "say again"

12.3. Airplane Management:

Use of Power

• Increase smoothly and progressively — idle to full in <2 seconds
• Keep hand on throttle until above 300 feet AGL

Use of Rudder

• Maintain directional control during takeoff roll
• Keep feet clear of toe brakes
• Look at a distant landmark, not just ahead of the airplane

Use of Elevators

Takeoff Run	Rotation	Initial Climb
Back pressure to reduce nosewheel loading	Increase back pressure to pitch nose up	Establish climb attitude

Checks During Takeoff

• Airspeed rising
• Engine developing full RPM
• Temperatures and pressures within limits
• If unhappy — abandon the takeoff

12.4. Human Factors:

• Decision making — go/no-go
• Do not be rushed by other traffic or ATC

12.5. Air Exercise:

The Standard Takeoff

1. LOOKOUT before entering the runway
2. Line up on the runway, choose a landmark to monitor direction
3. Increase to full power. Control direction through rudder pedals, apply some back pressure on the control column
4. Check: airspeed increasing, power/RPM OK, engine Ts & Ps OK
5. At the rotation speed, increase back pressure to pitch the airplane nose up
6. Once airborne, progressively establish the normal climb attitude

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The Climb to Downwind

1. Not below 500 feet AGL, LOOKOUT and make a climbing turn to the left (at 15° AoB)
2. Level out at 1,000 feet AGL on the crosswind leg. ATTITUDE · POWER · TRIM. LOOKOUT and turn on to the downwind leg (at 30° AoB)
3. Along the downwind leg, judge parallel flight path to the runway. Carry out the pre-landing checks
4. Judge the point to turn on to base leg by reference to the runway threshold. LOOKOUT and turn onto base leg (at 30° AoB)

13.1. Principle of Flight:

The Standard Pattern Pattern

• Rectangular pattern with the runway on one side
• Normally left-hand (all turns to the left)
• Pattern height: usually 1,000 feet AGL
• Legs: Climb-out → Crosswind → Downwind → Base → Final

Use of Local Landmarks

• Use prominent landmarks around the wingtip to judge 90° turns
• More accurate than using the heading indicator alone
• Monitor the runway to ensure correct ground track

Effect of Wind on the Pattern Pattern

• Without drift correction, wind will push the airplane off the intended ground track
• Adjust heading into wind on each leg (~10° correction)
• Base leg is most affected by wind

Judging Distance from Runway on Downwind

• Judge by position of the runway relative to the wing
• Low wing: runway visible under wing
• High wing: runway visible past wing strut

Judging the Turn onto Base Leg

• When the runway threshold is at about 30° behind the wing trailing edge
• In a left-hand pattern: about the 8 o'clock position
• Strong tailwind: turn sooner to compensate

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13.2. Airmanship:

Cockpit Workload — ANC

1. Aviate	Fly the airplane — #1 priority at all times
2. Navigate	Correctly position the airplane in the traffic pattern
3. Communicate	Radio comes after the first two are established

Pre-Landing Checks

• Completed on the downwind leg
• Memorize from the checklist
• Break up checks with lookout scans for other traffic

Spacing in the Pattern

• Maintain safe separation from aircraft ahead
• Prefer gentle 'S' turns or slower airspeed over orbiting
• Avoid extending downwind excessively

Noise Abatement

• Be aware of noise abatement procedures at the airport
• Pattern may be altered to avoid specific areas

13.3. Airplane Management:

Forces in the Descent and Landing

• Approach airspeed: ~1.3 × stall speed in approach config
• Flap used for steeper descent angle, slower speed, better forward visibility
• Power controls rate of descent
• Attitude controls airspeed

Landing Distance Factors

Weight	↑ weight = ↑ approach speed = ↑ landing distance
Flap	Full flap = shortest landing distance
Air Density	Hot/high = faster groundspeed = longer landing
Surface	Wet grass adds 30%+; contamination adds more
Slope	Downslope ↑ landing distance; upslope ↓
Wind	Headwind ↓ groundspeed = shorter landing

13.4. Human Factors:

• Landing cues — visual references for height and distance
• Runway slope illusions (upslope: too high; downslope: too low)
• Workload management and priorities
• It is easy to feel mentally "behind" the airplane at first

13.5. Air Exercise:

The Initial Approach to Land

• A safe landing is the result of a stable approach and well-executed pattern
• Start descent on base leg when threshold is at ~45° between nose and wing leading edge (10 o'clock in left-hand pattern)
• Lower initial flap, trim for approach speed
• Turn onto final at 15–20° AoB (never exceed 30°)
• Establish on extended centerline
• Lower landing flap (intermediate to full), pitch nose-down, trim
• Stabilize at the correct approach speed as early as possible

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The Landing

• At 15–20 feet: reduce rate of descent by pitching to level attitude, close throttle
• Look down the end of the runway — not directly in front
• Progressively increase back pressure to control sink (roundout/flare)
• Touch down on the main wheels
• Let the nosewheel settle gently
• Keep straight with rudder
• After-landing checks — clear of runway

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The Go Around

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Touch and Go

• Once nosewheel on runway, raise flap and apply full power
• Keep straight
• Takeoff normally
• Requires sufficient runway length

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Mislanding / Balloon / Bounce

• If approach becomes unstable or landing is not safe — GO AROUND
• If airplane balloons during flare — hold attitude, do not push forward
• If bounce — go around if significant; hold attitude if minor