This lesson transitions from basic instrument flying to IFR navigation. You will learn how VOR stations work, how to track radials, and how the TO/FROM indicator tells you your position relative to the station. You will also be introduced to holding patterns and begin using the G1000's flight director and autopilot.
The scenario is a 58 nm IFR flight from Morristown Municipal (KMMU) to Lehigh Valley International (KABE), Using ForeFlight, build the flight plan and select an appropriate route.
Building on Lesson 1
This lesson assumes you are comfortable with basic attitude flying and the G1000 PFD layout from Lesson 1. If partial panel skills need reinforcement, your instructor will review before proceeding.
Lesson Objectives
Develop understanding of VOR navigation: radials, bearings, and TO/FROM logic
Create and brief an IFR cross-country flight plan (KMMU → KABE)
Introduce holding patterns and entry types
Practice advanced maneuvers: Pattern A, Vertical S1, Teardrop
Introduce automation: Flight Director, AFCS, FLCH, VS, and autopilot basics
Background Briefing Topics
VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) — how it works
VOR service volumes (Terminal, Low, High)
VOR receiver checks — D.E.P.S. and tolerances
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) and slant range error
Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) fundamentals
IFR altitudes — MEA, MOCA, MRA, MAA, OROCA, MVA
IFR cruising altitudes (odd/even rule)
Alternate airport requirements — the "1-2-3" rule
IFR fuel requirements
Departure procedures — ODP vs. SID
Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) introduction
Simulator Exercise Topics
G1000 route setup: KMMU → KABE via V3 and STW
IFR clearance copy from real KMMU ATC audio
VOR radial tracking — CDI, bearing pointers, OBS
Hold entries: 80/260 turn, teardrop
Flight Director and autopilot modes: HDG, NAV, FLCH, PIT, VS
Advanced VOR use: dual VORs, radial vs. course, intercepts
Bonus: Load VOR 24 at KACK
Flight Plan
Student Planning
Using ForeFlight Maps or Flights, plan an IFR flight for this lesson. Select an appropriate route and include the departure procedure if available. Brief the route, weather, and organize your charts before the session.
Watch: your preferred platform (Sporty's, Pilot Institute, YouTube) for "Autopilot and Flight Director Systems," "VOR Navigation Basics," "Holding Procedures"
Practice: Brief the VOR 24 approach at KACK using FAA or Jeppesen charts
study time
Instructor Notes
Pacing
30 min briefing, 75 min sim, 15 min debrief
Common Errors
VOR TO/FROM confusion is universal. Students forget to ID the station. CDI deflection direction confuses left/right corrections.
Teaching Strategy
Use the G1000 CDI to demonstrate radial intercepts visually before asking them to track. Let them make heading corrections and observe the result before explaining the rule.
The VOR is the backbone of the IFR airway system. It operates on frequencies from 108.0 to 117.95 MHz, excluding 108.10–111.95 with odd tenths (those are reserved for localizer frequencies). Full-scale CDI deflection on a VOR is 10°.
The pilot must verify correct and usable VOR station with morse code ID before using it for navigation. The VOR MON (VOR Minimum Operational Network) program ensures that as old VORs are decommissioned, a legacy ILS or VOR approach is available within 100 NM of any position in the CONUS.
VOR Service Volumes
Standard VOR Service Volumes
Class
Altitude (ft AGL)
Distance (NM)
Terminal (T)
1,000 – 12,000
25
Low (L)
1,000 – 18,000
40
High (H)
1,000 – 14,500
40
14,500 – 18,000
100
18,000 – 45,000
130
45,000 – 60,000
100
VOR Receiver Checks — "D.E.P.S."
Perform every 30 calendar days before using VOR for IFR navigation (14 CFR 91.171):
Method
Tolerance
VOT (VOR Test facility)
±4°
Repair Station
±4°
VOR ground checkpoint
±4°
VOR airborne checkpoint
±6°
Dual VOR cross-check
±4° between the two
Above a prominent ground landmark on a selected radial at least 20 NM from a VOR, at a "reasonable low altitude"
±6°
Record each VOR check with D.E.P.S.: Date, Error (bearing error), Place, Signature.
VOR Limitations
Cone of confusion — directly over the station, signals become unreliable
Reverse sensing — if the OBS is set incorrectly (e.g., flying FROM on a TO indication)
Line-of-sight — requires line-of-sight between aircraft and station
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
DME operates on 962–1213 MHz (UHF) and is normally paired with a VHF station (VOR/LOC) — it tunes automatically. The airborne DME unit transmits an interrogation signal; the ground facility replies; the airborne unit calculates slant range distance based on reply time.
Slant Range Error
Because DME measures slant range (line-of-sight distance) rather than ground distance, the reading is always greater than actual ground distance. The error is significant when close to the station at high altitude.
Directly overhead: DME indicates your altitude in NM (e.g., at 6,000 ft AGL, DME shows ~1 NM)
At 1 NM per 1,000 ft, slant range error becomes negligible when further than 5 NM from the station at typical altitudes
Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)
NDBs operate on 190–535 kHz (low to medium frequency band) and can also receive commercial AM stations at 550–1650 kHz. The ADF (Automatic Direction Finder) in the aircraft always points toward the NDB.
Magnetic Bearing = Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing
NDB Service Volume Classes
Class
Range (NM)
Compass Locator
15
Medium High (MH)
25
High (H)
50 (or less — see NOTAM or Chart Supplement)
High High (HH)
75
A compass locator is a low-powered NDB (at least 25 watts, 15 NM range) installed at the outer marker (OM) or middle marker (MM) on some ILS approaches.
IFR Altitudes
Except for takeoff or landing, or otherwise authorized by the FAA, no person may operate an aircraft under IFR below the minimum altitudes prescribed for the flown segment (14 CFR 91.177). If no minimum altitude is prescribed:
Mountainous areas: 2,000 ft above the highest obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 NM from the course
Non-mountainous areas: 1,000 ft above the highest obstacle within 4 NM of the course
IFR Altitude Definitions
Abbreviation
Full Name
Meaning
DA/DH
Decision Altitude / Height
Altitude on a vertically guided approach (ILS, LNAV/VNAV, LPV) at which the pilot must decide to continue or go around
MDA/MDH
Minimum Descent Altitude / Height
Lowest altitude authorized on a non-precision approach until the pilot sees the required visual references
MEA
Minimum Enroute Altitude
Lowest altitude with acceptable navigational signal coverage and obstacle clearance. An MEA gap means loss of nav coverage — annotated "MEA GAP" on charts
MOCA
Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude
Obstacle clearance and navigation coverage only within 22 NM of the VOR
MRA
Minimum Reception Altitude
Lowest altitude where an intersection can be determined using radio nav aids
MCA
Minimum Crossing Altitude
Lowest altitude at certain fixes when crossing in the direction of a higher MEA
MAA
Maximum Authorized Altitude
Highest usable altitude — e.g., "MAA-17000" on charts
MTA
Minimum Turning Altitude
Vertical and lateral obstacle clearance in turns over certain fixes
MVA
Minimum Vectoring Altitude
Lowest altitude for radar vectoring — may be lower than MEA or MOCA
OROCA
Off Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude
1,000 ft buffer in non-mountainous areas; 2,000 ft in mountainous. May not provide nav or comm coverage.
MORA
Minimum Off Route Altitude (Jeppesen)
Route MORA: 10 NM either side of airway centerline. Grid MORA: within a lat/long grid block.
Cruise Clearance vs. Maintain
A "cruise clearance" (e.g., "N12345 Cruise 6,000") allocates a block of airspace from the minimum IFR altitude up to and including 6,000. You are free to climb and descend within this block. However, once you start descending and verbally report leaving an altitude, you may not return to it without additional ATC clearance. A cruise clearance also allows you to begin an approach at the destination without additional "cleared for the approach" clearance.
Compare to "Maintain 6,000" — you must stay at 6,000 until given new altitude instructions.
IFR Cruising Altitudes
In uncontrolled airspace, IFR cruising altitudes are based on magnetic course (14 CFR 91.179):
Below FL290
Magnetic Course
Altitude
0°–179° (eastbound)
ODD thousands (3,000, 5,000, 7,000...)
180°–359° (westbound)
EVEN thousands (4,000, 6,000, 8,000...)
In controlled airspace, IFR cruising altitudes are as assigned by ATC.
Alternate Airport — The "1-2-3" Rule
A destination alternate is always required, unless:
An instrument approach is published and available for the destination, AND
For at least 1 hour before to 1 hour after the ETA:
Ceiling will be at least 2,000 ft above airport elevation, and
Visibility will be at least 3 SM
Minimum Weather to List as an Alternate
The alternate airport must have weather at or above these minimums (per the published alternate minimums, or if none):
Approach Type at Alternate
Minimum Weather
Precision approach
600 ft ceiling and 2 SM visibility
Non-precision approach
800 ft ceiling and 2 SM visibility
No instrument approach available
Ceiling & visibility must allow descent from MEA, approach, and landing under VFR
GPS Alternate Considerations
Non-WAAS GPS: You can flight-plan GPS approaches at either the destination or the alternate, but not both
WAAS without baro-VNAV: May base flight plan on LNAV approaches at both destination and alternate
WAAS with baro-VNAV: May base flight plan on LNAV/VNAV or RNP 0.3 at both destination and alternate
IFR Minimum Fuel Requirements
For IFR flight, you must carry enough fuel to (14 CFR 91.167):
Fuel from departure to destination airport
+ Fuel from destination to most distant alternate (if alternate required)
+45 minutes calculated at normal cruise
Departure Procedures (DP)
Departure procedures ensure obstacle clearance during the initial climb. They require that the airplane (AIM 5-2-9):
Crossed the departure end of the runway at least 35 ft AGL
Reached 400 ft AGL before turning
Climbs at least 200 feet per NM (FPNM), or as published otherwise on the chart
Two Types of Departure Procedure
Type
Purpose
Notes
Obstacle Departure Procedure (ODP)
Provides only obstacle clearance
Printed textually or graphically. Graphic ODPs are titled "(OBSTACLE)." Not required to accept — you can decline by stating "NO SIDs" in the remarks section of your flight plan.
Standard Instrument Departure (SID)
Obstacle clearance plus reduces pilot/controller workload by simplifying ATC clearances
Always printed graphically. May depict special radio failure procedures. You are not required to accept a DP — to avoid it, state "NO SIDs" in remarks.
DP Equipment Categories
Non-RNAV DP: VOR, DME, NDB equipment
RNAV DP: GPS, VOR/DME, DME/DME. Requires at least RNAV 1 performance. Identified with "RNAV" in the title.
RADAR DP: ATC radar vectors to an ATS route, NAVAID, or fix. Annotated "RADAR REQUIRED."
Chart Symbols for Takeoff Minimums
▲ (T symbol): Non-standard takeoff minimums or departure procedures exist — check the Chart Supplement
▲ (A symbol): Non-standard IFR alternate minimums exist
▲ NA: Alternate minimums not authorized due to unmonitored facility or absence of weather reporting service
IFR Takeoff Minimums
No takeoff minimums are mandated for Part 91 operations. However, prescribed minimums for the runway apply to Parts 121, 125, 129, 135. If no prescribed minimums exist:
1-2 engine airplanes: 1 SM visibility
More than 2 engines: ½ SM visibility
Visual Climb Over Airport (VCOA)
A departure option for IFR aircraft in VMC. The pilot visually conducts climbing turns over the airport up to the published "climb to" altitude, from which they proceed to the instrument portion of the departure.
Designed to avoid obstacles beyond 3 SM from the departure end of the runway, as an alternative to complying with climb gradients greater than the standard 200 ft/NM
Advise ATC as early as possible prior to departure of the intent to fly a VCOA
Published in the "Take-Off Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures" section of the Terminal Procedures
Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR)
A STAR serves as a transition between the enroute structure and a point from which an approach to landing can be made. Key points:
Transition routes connect enroute fixes to the basic STAR procedure
Usually named according to the fix at which the basic procedure begins
As with SIDs, you can state "NO STARs" in remarks to avoid getting a clearance containing a STAR
RNAV STARs require RNAV 1 performance
3-min review
Pre-Flight Briefing
IFR flight plan KMMU → KABE: Brief the route, weather, and alternates
VOR Navigation: Review radials vs. bearings, TO/FROM logic, CDI vs. bearing pointers
Holding Procedures: Components of a hold, three entry types
Instrument Approaches: Brief the approach format — FAA vs. Jeppesen chart logic
ATC Audio Practice
Real ATC recordings from Morristown Municipal Airport (KMMU). Practice extracting weather from ATIS and copying clearances at real-world cadence.
ATIS
KMMU ATIS Tango
Practice extracting weather, runway, and NOTAMs from this Morristown ATIS.
KMMU ATIS Uniform
Compare with ATIS Tango: what weather changes occurred between updates?
KMMU IFR ATIS Full
Extended IFR ATIS with additional NOTAMs and remarks section.
IFR Clearance
KMMU → KABE Frequency Recording
Extended clearance delivery frequency (26:49). Listen for multiple IFR clearances being issued and practice picking out your callsign from the traffic.
Pattern A, Vertical S1, Teardrop — continue refining from Lesson 1
Hold Entries: Practice 80/260 turn, teardrop entry
Pattern A — Straight-and-Level with Timed Turns
Two connected patterns. Left: timed turns (15-sec, 1-min, 1:15) at normal cruise. Right: 2-min legs with speed changes (cruise ↔ approach). Constant altitude. Standard rate = 3°/sec.
Vertical S — Attitude Indicator + Altimeter Scan
Wings level throughout — heading constant. Climbs at progressively smaller pitch attitudes (5°, 4°, 3°, 2°). All descents at 2.5° nose down. Practice with attitude indicator + altimeter only.
S-1 — Climbing/Descending Turns, Alternating Left & Right
Start heading south. Each cycle: climb during first 180° (bottom half of circle), descend at 2.5° during second 180° (top half). Alternate left and right turns with decreasing altitude targets. If target altitude reached before the abeam point, level off and hold until 180°.
S-2 — Turn Reverses with Each Altitude Change
Identical to S-1 but the turn direction reverses with each change in vertical direction. Left climbing turn → right descending turn → left climbing turn. Creates an S-shaped ground track advancing sideways. All descents at 2.5° nose down.
Autopilot & Flight Director
Introduction to the G1000 GFC 700 autopilot modes:
Mode
Function
HDG
Fly the heading set on the heading bug
NAV
Track the active GPS or VOR/LOC course
FLCH
Flight Level Change — pitch for airspeed, power for climb/descent rate
VS
Vertical Speed — hold a selected rate of climb or descent
PIT
Pitch hold — maintain current pitch attitude
VOR Navigation Practice
Dual VOR tracking: Set NAV1 and NAV2 to different stations, practice identifying position using radial intersections
Radial vs. Course: Understand the difference between a VOR radial (FROM the station) and a course (direction of flight)
Intercepts: Practice intercepting a specific radial at a given angle
Bonus Exercise
If time allows: Load the VOR 24 approach at KACK in the G1000. Practice the approach loading workflow and brief the approach using the published chart.
VOR radials radiate FROM the station. A VOR radial is always described as the magnetic direction FROM the station. If you're on the 090 radial, the station is to your west.
TO/FROM tells you which side of the station you're on relative to the selected course — not your direction of flight. You can fly any heading and TO/FROM stays the same for a given position and OBS setting.
MEA guarantees nav signal and obstacle clearance. MOCA guarantees obstacle clearance but nav signal only within 22 NM of the VOR. Know when you can descend below MEA to MOCA.
The 1-2-3 rule determines if you need an alternate: 1 hour before to 1 hour after ETA, 2,000 ft ceiling, 3 SM visibility. If weather meets this, no alternate required.
IFR fuel = destination + alternate (if required) + 45 minutes at normal cruise.
ODP provides obstacle clearance only. SID provides obstacle clearance plus route simplification. You can decline either by stating "NO SIDs" in remarks.
200 ft/NM is the standard climb gradient. If you can't make it, you need to fly the published ODP or don't depart.
Oral Exam Self-Test
What frequency range does a VOR operate on? What frequencies are reserved for localizers?
What are the three classes of VOR service volume and their altitude/distance limits?
How often must the VOR be checked for IFR flight? Name the five check methods and their tolerances.
What information must you log for a VOR check? (D.E.P.S.)
What is DME slant range error? When is it most significant?
Define MEA, MOCA, MRA, OROCA, and MVA. When can you fly below MEA?
What is the difference between a "cruise clearance" and "maintain" an altitude?
What IFR cruising altitude rule applies in uncontrolled airspace?
State the 1-2-3 rule for alternates. What are the minimum weather requirements to list an airport as an alternate?
How much fuel must you carry for an IFR flight?
What is the difference between an ODP and a SID?
What climb gradient is assumed for all departure procedures unless otherwise published?
What does the triangle-T symbol mean on an approach chart? The triangle-A? The triangle-A NA?
Can a Part 91 pilot depart with zero visibility in IFR conditions? What are the risks?
What is a Visual Climb Over Airport (VCOA)?
What is a STAR and when would you decline one?
Post-Flight Discussion Points
Common errors: confusing radial with course, TO/FROM logic mistakes
Hold entry identification — could you determine the correct entry on the first attempt?
Use of G1000 bearing pointers and OBS mode
Autopilot mode selection — HDG vs. NAV, FLCH vs. VS
Pilot Preparation for Lesson 3
Lesson 3 focuses on mastering holding patterns and beginning VOR approaches (KACK → KPVD).
Holding patterns are one of the most tested topics on both the written exam and the oral. More importantly, they are a routine part of IFR flying — ATC uses them for traffic sequencing, weather...
These lesson plans are provided as supplementary training guidance only. They do not supersede FAA publications, aircraft manufacturer documentation, or your instructor's direction. Always refer to the FAA Instrument Flying Handbook, Airplane Flying Handbook, AIM, and applicable POH/AFM as the official sources.