Flight Training Lesson Plans

This is your first lesson in the instrument rating program. Everything you learn here builds the foundation for all IFR flying — from reading instruments under the hood to copying a clearance at real-world cadence. By the end of this lesson, you will have flown partial panel, transitioned to full panel, and briefed a complete IFR cross-country route.

The scenario for this lesson is an IFR flight from Republic Airport (KFRG) on Long Island to Hanscom Field (KBED) near Boston. Using ForeFlight Maps or Flights, build the flight plan and select a route. Include the FRG SID.

Lesson Objectives

• Establish foundational knowledge in instrument flying and IFR procedures
• Practice partial and full-panel attitude flying using G1000
• Learn route planning, IFR chart organization, and simulator setup for an IFR flight
• Introduction to ATC clearances, SID charts, and radio communication basics

Background Briefing Topics

• When is an instrument rating required?
• Instrument rating aeronautical experience requirements
• IFR currency — the "6 HITS" rule
• Logging instrument time
• IFR flight plan filing and clearance procedures
• The CRAFT mnemonic for copying clearances
• Preflight self-assessment: IM SAFE
• G1000 PFD setup for instrument flying

Simulator Exercise Topics

• Attitude flying with partial panel — 10/5 degree climbs, level flight, 20-degree banked turns
• Transition from attitude indicator only to adding altimeter, then heading indicator
• Full panel with all six instruments — Pattern A, Vertical S, S-1 maneuvers
• IFR clearance practice with real ATC audio from KFRG
• G1000 route setup: input flight plan, NAV radios, flight director
• Trim management under instrument conditions

Pilot Preparation

Complete these items before your lesson:

1. Plan an IFR flight from KFRG to KBED using ForeFlight — practice route planning, weather briefing, and chart organization as if you were PIC
2. Watch: Loading Flight Plan | Garmin G1000 NXi
3. Watch: PFD Setup for Instrument Training Flight
4. Watch: Stop Writing "CRAFT" on Every IFR Clearance — Here's Why!
5. Read: Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15B) — Chapter 6, Section II: Airplane Attitude Instrument Flying Using an Electronic Flight Display
6. Read: Instrument Flying Handbook — Chapter 7, Section II: Airplane Basic Flight Maneuvers Using an Electronic Flight Display
7. Download: Aviator.NYC Instrument Rating Files — save to iPad for offline access during sim

Flight Plan

When Is an Instrument Rating Required?

An instrument rating is required in several situations that go beyond typical VFR flying. Understanding these scenarios is fundamental to knowing why you are here.

• When acting as PIC under IFR or in weather conditions less than prescribed for VFR (14 CFR 61.3)
• When carrying passengers for compensation or hire on cross-country flights in excess of 50 NM or at night (14 CFR 61.133)
• For flight in Class A airspace (14 CFR 91.135)
• For Special VFR between sunset and sunrise (14 CFR 91.157)

Instrument Rating Experience Requirements

To be eligible for an instrument rating, you must meet the minimum aeronautical experience specified in 14 CFR 61.65:

• 50 hours cross-country PIC time
  • Of which 10 hours must be in airplanes
• 40 hours actual or simulated instrument time, including:
  • 15 hours with a CFII
  • One cross-country flight of at least 250 NM along airways or by directed ATC routing, with:
    • An instrument approach at each airport
    • 3 different kinds of approaches using navigation systems
    • A filed IFR flight plan
  • 3 hours instrument flight training in the last 2 calendar months prior to practical test

Simulator and Training Device Credit

The FAA allows a portion of your instrument training to be completed in approved training devices:

Logging Instrument Time

A pilot may log instrument time only for flight time when the person operates the aircraft solely by reference to instruments under actual or simulated instrument flight conditions. An authorized instructor may log instrument time when conducting instrument flight instruction in actual instrument flight conditions.

A flight simulator or FTD may be used to meet the flight review requirements as long as:

• It is used in an approved course by a training center under Part 142
• It represents an aircraft for which the pilot is rated

IFR Currency — "6 HITS"

To act as PIC under IFR or in weather conditions less than VFR minimums, you must have performed the following within the 6 calendar months preceding the month of flight:

The 6 HITS can be completed in a FFS, ATD, or FTD provided the device represents the category of aircraft for the instrument rating privileges to be maintained and the pilot performs the tasks and iterations in simulated instrument conditions. A flight instructor is not needed for currency — only for training.

IFR Currency Timeline

Think of IFR currency in three phases:

1. Current (0–6 months): You have performed the 6 HITS or passed an IPC/checkride within the preceding 6 calendar months. You may fly IFR as PIC.
2. Grace period (6–12 months): No 6 HITS in the previous 6 months. You have an additional 6 calendar months to perform the 6 HITS with a safety pilot (in simulated IMC), an instructor, or examiner, or in a FFS, FTD, or ATD.
3. Expired (beyond 12 months): An Instrument Proficiency Check (IPC) is the only way to reestablish currency. The IPC must be administered by a CFII, examiner, or other approved person. Guidelines are in the ACS.

Preflight Self-Assessment

"IM SAFE" Checklist

Before every flight — VFR or IFR — assess your personal fitness using the IM SAFE checklist:

"PAVE" — Risk Management & Personal Minimums

Use PAVE to evaluate the four risk categories before each flight:

• P — Pilot: General health, physical/mental/emotional state, proficiency, currency
• A — Aircraft: Airworthiness, equipment, performance
• V — EnVironment: Weather hazards, terrain, airports/runways to be used, other conditions
• E — External pressure: Meetings, people waiting at destination, "get-there-itis"

"DECIDE" — Decision Making Model

• D — Detect that a change has occurred
• E — Estimate the need to counter the change
• C — Choose a desirable outcome
• I — Identify solutions
• D — Do the necessary actions
• E — Evaluate the effects of the actions

IFR Flight Plan Filing

No person may operate an aircraft in controlled airspace under IFR unless that person has filed an IFR flight plan and received an appropriate ATC clearance.

Filing Methods

• FSS — by phone (1-800-WX-BRIEF), over the radio (GCO/RCO), or in person
• Online — Leidos (1800wxbrief.com), Garmin (fltplan.com)
• EFB — ForeFlight, Garmin Pilot, FlyQ
• With ATC — over radio or phone if no other means available

Filing Requirements

• File at least 30 minutes prior to estimated departure
• Non-scheduled flights above FL230 should be filed at least 4 hours before estimated departure time (AIM 5-1-8)
• Preferred IFR Routes are published in the Chart Supplement. The AIM recommends filing a preferred route if one is available (AIM 5-1-8)

Flight Plan Cancellation

• Towered airports: Automatically canceled by ATC upon landing
• Non-towered airports: Pilot must contact ATC or FSS to cancel (by radio or phone)
• You can cancel anytime in flight if out of IMC and out of Class A airspace

Preflight Information Required — "NW KRAFT"

Before any IFR flight, the PIC is required to become familiar with all available information concerning that flight (14 CFR 91.103). Use the NW KRAFT mnemonic:

IFR Clearance — "CRAFT"

When you receive your IFR clearance from ATC, it will contain five elements. Use the CRAFT mnemonic to copy and read back the clearance. Read our deep-dive on why CRAFT is just the starting point: Beyond CRAFT — Elevating Pilot Proficiency in Instrument Clearances.

Required Documents & Equipment

Personal Documents — Pilot

• Pilot Certificate
• Medical certificate (or US Driver's license as permitted — 14 CFR 61.113 & 61.23)
• Authorized photo ID (passport, driver's license, etc.)
• Restricted Radiotelephone Operator Permit (for flights outside the US)

Aircraft Documents — "ARROW"

IFR Equipment Required — "GRABCARD"

For IFR flight, the aircraft must have all VFR day equipment, VFR night equipment, plus GRABCARD:

Aircraft Inspections — "AVIATES"

Before flying IFR, verify that all required inspections are current:

G1000 Setup for IFR Flight

Before departing on an IFR flight in our G1000 simulator, you need to configure the avionics properly. This sequence becomes second nature with practice.

Pre-Departure Checklist

1. PFD Configuration: Set the flight director to heading mode. Ensure the CDI source is correct (GPS or NAV as appropriate for the departure).
2. Flight Plan Entry: Load your IFR route into the G1000 flight plan page. Verify waypoints match your clearance.
3. NAV Radio Setup: Set NAV1 and NAV2 frequencies. Tune COM1 to clearance delivery, COM2 to ATIS.
4. Flight Director Heading: Set your assigned heading (typically the runway heading or a departure heading from your clearance).
5. Altimeter: Set to current altimeter setting from ATIS. Confirm the altitude readout matches field elevation within ±75 ft (AIM 7-2-3).
6. Transponder: Enter assigned squawk code. Set to ALT (Mode C) before takeoff.

Attitude Instrument Flying — Fundamentals

All instrument flying is built on one principle: control the aircraft's attitude, and the performance will follow. The attitude indicator is your primary reference — every other instrument provides supporting information.

Partial Panel Progression

In this lesson, you will build your instrument scan incrementally:

1. Attitude Indicator only — All other instruments covered. Practice 10° and 5° pitch changes (climbs and descents), level flight with configuration changes, and 20° banked turns. Focus entirely on attitude and trim.
2. Add Altimeter — Now you can verify your pitch inputs produce the desired altitude changes. Practice climbs and descents to specific altitudes.
3. Add Heading Indicator — Now you can verify your bank inputs produce accurate heading changes. Practice turns to specific headings with climbs and descents.
4. Full Panel — All six instruments uncovered. Establish your full instrument cross-check: Pattern A, Vertical S, S-1 maneuvers.

Pre-Flight Briefing

Before starting the simulator, complete the following with your instructor:

• IFR Pre-Flight Planning: Brief the KFRG → KBED route, review weather, and organize charts on your EFB
• IFR Clearance Practice: Practice full readback of the sample clearance
• G1000 Setup: Walk through COM1/COM2 setup, ATIS frequency, and clearance delivery
• Introduction to SIDs: Review routing tools in ForeFlight/G1000 and brief the FRG departure

ATC Audio Practice

Listen to these real ATC recordings from Republic Airport (KFRG). Practice extracting weather information from ATIS and copying IFR clearances at real-world cadence.

ATIS

IFR Clearance

ForeFlight Briefing: Download KFRG → KBED ForeFlight Briefing (PDF) — Complete navlog, route, METARs/TAFs, winds aloft, and vertical cross-section for this scenario.

Phase 1: IFR Flight Setup

Set up for the KFRG → KBED IFR flight. Use ForeFlight for real-world flight planning. If you want to see a sample IFR flight plan, download the KFRG → KBED briefing (PDF).

1. G1000 Route Entry: Input the flight plan you selected into the G1000 flight plan page. Include the SID.
2. COMM/NAV Radio Setup: Set appropriate frequencies for the departure.
3. Obtain IFR Clearance: Contact clearance delivery and copy your clearance using CRAFT.
4. Amend as Needed: Make changes to the flight plan as required by your clearance.

End of flight planning section. Instructor can reposition to a ramp holding short of the runway.

Phase 2: Partial Panel Attitude Flying

You will start with only the attitude indicator visible. All other instruments are covered or turned off. The goal is to learn that attitude controls performance — if you set the correct pitch and bank, the airplane will do what you want without needing to see altitude or heading.

Exercises

1. Pitch Changes: Practice 10° nose-up and 5° nose-down pitch changes from straight-and-level. Return to level flight using the attitude indicator only.
   • Focus: Smooth, deliberate control inputs. Small corrections.
   • Trim after each pitch change — the airplane must fly hands-off at the new attitude.
2. Level Flight with Configuration Changes: Maintain level flight while adding/removing power. The pitch attitude will change — maintain altitude using attitude reference only.
3. Level Flight with Far Configuration: Holding 2,000 RPM, maintain level attitude. Add flaps and trim for each stage of flaps. Then retract all flaps.
4. Banked Turns: 20° banked turns left and right. Roll to 20°, hold the bank, roll wings level.
   • Focus: Coordinated use of aileron and rudder. Watch for altitude loss in the turn.

Phase 3: Building the Instrument Scan

One instrument at a time, you will build your cross-check.

Step 1: Add Altimeter

Now you can verify altitude. Practice climbing to a specific altitude (e.g., 3,000 ft), leveling off, then descending to another altitude. Continue making turns.

Step 2: Add Heading Indicator

Now you can verify heading. Practice turns to specific headings: "Turn left heading 270." Combine heading changes with altitude changes: "Climb and maintain 4,000, turn right heading 090."

Step 3: Full Panel

All six instruments are now uncovered. Establish your full instrument cross-check incorporating airspeed, attitude, altimeter, turn coordinator, heading indicator, and vertical speed.

Practice the following instrument maneuvers:

Cockpit Setup Videos

Review these videos before or after your simulator session:

• PFD Setup for Instrument Training Flight
• Setting Your Flight Director: Heading Assignment Before Takeoff
• Loading Flight Plan | Garmin G1000 NXi
• IFR Radio Communication Setup | Flight Training New Jersey
• Stop Writing "CRAFT" on Every IFR Clearance — Here's Why!
• How to Organize Your Charts in ForeFlight | KFRG–KBED Example

Key Takeaways

1. Attitude controls performance. Set the attitude on the AI, trim to hold it, then cross-check the other instruments. Never chase the needles.
2. Trim is not optional. If you're holding pressure on the yoke, you're not trimmed. Fix it immediately — trim frees your attention for the scan.
3. CRAFT is your clearance framework. Clearance limit, Route, Altitude, Frequency, Transponder. Listen for the structure, not every word.
4. IFR currency requires action. The 6 HITS must be performed every 6 calendar months. After 12 months with no currency, only an IPC can restore your privileges.
5. Know what's required before you fly. ARROW for the aircraft documents, GRABCARD for IFR equipment, AVIATES for inspections, NW KRAFT for preflight information.

Mnemonics from This Lesson

Oral Exam Self-Test

Can you answer these questions without looking? These are common oral exam topics from Lesson 1 material.

1. When is an instrument rating required? (Name all four situations.)
2. What are the minimum aeronautical experience requirements for an instrument rating?
3. How many hours of instrument time can you log in an AATD toward your instrument rating?
4. What does "6 HITS" stand for, and what is the time period?
5. What happens if you haven't met IFR currency for 7 months? For 13 months?
6. What equipment is required for IFR flight beyond VFR day equipment? (Spell out GRABCARD.)
7. What documents must be in the aircraft? (ARROW)
8. How often must the VOR be checked for IFR flight? What are the acceptable tolerances?
9. How often must the altimeter, static system, and transponder be checked?
10. What is a "clearance void time" and what must you do if you don't depart before it expires?
11. Can you depart IFR from an uncontrolled airport without a clearance? What are the risks?
12. What are the five elements of an IFR clearance? (CRAFT)
13. What preflight information is the PIC required to become familiar with before an IFR flight? (NW KRAFT)
14. What is the minimum equipment required for IFR flight in terms of navigation capability?
15. When can a flight simulator or FTD be used to meet the flight review requirement?

Post-Flight Discussion Points

Review these with your instructor after the simulator session:

• How effective was your instrument scan? Were you fixating on any single instrument?
• Was the airplane properly trimmed during attitude changes?
• During partial panel, could you maintain altitude and heading using attitude reference alone?
• Were you able to copy the IFR clearance from the audio recording? What elements did you miss?
• How comfortable are you with the G1000 flight plan entry workflow?

Pilot Preparation for Lesson 2

Lesson 2 covers VOR navigation and IFR cross-country planning (KMMU → KABE). Complete this preparation:

Reading

1. Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15B):
   • Chapter 9: Navigation Systems (Pages 251–258)
   • Chapter 5: Autopilot Systems (Pages 5-25 to 5-26)
   • Chapter 7: Flight Maneuvers Using EFD (Pages 7-33 to 7-39)
2. Instrument Procedures Handbook (FAA-H-8083-16B):
   • Section 4-35: Flight Management Systems (FMS)
   • Section 4-36: Autopilot Modes

Videos

• Loading and Checking the VOR 24 into Nantucket using G1000
• Instrument Holds in Garmin G1000 | Two Methods
• Video study: Search your preferred learning platform (Sporty's, Pilot Institute, or YouTube) for "Autopilot and Flight Director Systems," "VOR Navigation Basics," and "Holding Procedures"

Practice

• Review the IFR Maneuvers PDF: Teardrop Entries, 80/260
• Watch: IAF vs. Vectors and Approach Activation

Coming Up in Lesson 2

• VOR navigation and IFR cross-country planning
• VOR radial tracking and TO/FROM logic
• Holding entries: direct, teardrop, parallel
• Flight Director and autopilot modes: HDG, NAV, FLCH, VS
• Flight planning from KMMU to KABE

Resources

FAA Publications

• Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15B)
• Instrument Procedures Handbook

Aviator.NYC Materials

• Instrument Rating Files — Instrument Flight Maneuvers PDF, G1000 NXi reference, approach plates for KBED
• Instrument Flight Maneuvers — Pattern A, Vertical S, S-1, S-2 (local diagrams)
• KFRG → KBED ForeFlight Briefing

This lesson transitions from basic instrument flying to IFR navigation. You will learn how VOR stations work, how to track radials, and how the TO/FROM indicator tells you your position relative to the station. You will also be introduced to holding patterns and begin using the G1000's flight director and autopilot.

The scenario is a 58 nm IFR flight from Morristown Municipal (KMMU) to Lehigh Valley International (KABE), Using ForeFlight, build the flight plan and select an appropriate route.

Lesson Objectives

• Develop understanding of VOR navigation: radials, bearings, and TO/FROM logic
• Create and brief an IFR cross-country flight plan (KMMU → KABE)
• Introduce holding patterns and entry types
• Practice advanced maneuvers: Pattern A, Vertical S1, Teardrop
• Introduce automation: Flight Director, AFCS, FLCH, VS, and autopilot basics

Background Briefing Topics

• VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) — how it works
• VOR service volumes (Terminal, Low, High)
• VOR receiver checks — D.E.P.S. and tolerances
• Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) and slant range error
• Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) fundamentals
• IFR altitudes — MEA, MOCA, MRA, MAA, OROCA, MVA
• IFR cruising altitudes (odd/even rule)
• Alternate airport requirements — the "1-2-3" rule
• IFR fuel requirements
• Departure procedures — ODP vs. SID
• Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) introduction

Simulator Exercise Topics

• G1000 route setup: KMMU → KABE via V3 and STW
• IFR clearance copy from real KMMU ATC audio
• VOR radial tracking — CDI, bearing pointers, OBS
• Hold entries: 80/260 turn, teardrop
• Flight Director and autopilot modes: HDG, NAV, FLCH, PIT, VS
• Advanced VOR use: dual VORs, radial vs. course, intercepts
• Bonus: Load VOR 24 at KACK

Flight Plan

Pilot Preparation

1. Read: Instrument Flying Handbook — Chapter 9: Navigation Systems (Pages 251–258)
2. Read: Instrument Flying Handbook — Chapter 5: Autopilot Systems (Pages 5-25 to 5-26)
3. Read: Instrument Procedures Handbook — Section 4-35: FMS, Section 4-36: Autopilot Modes
4. Watch: Loading and Checking the VOR 24 into Nantucket using G1000
5. Watch: Instrument Holds in Garmin G1000 | Two Methods
6. Watch: your preferred platform (Sporty's, Pilot Institute, YouTube) for "Autopilot and Flight Director Systems," "VOR Navigation Basics," "Holding Procedures"
7. Practice: Brief the VOR 24 approach at KACK using FAA or Jeppesen charts

VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)

The VOR is the backbone of the IFR airway system. It operates on frequencies from 108.0 to 117.95 MHz, excluding 108.10–111.95 with odd tenths (those are reserved for localizer frequencies). Full-scale CDI deflection on a VOR is 10°.

The pilot must verify correct and usable VOR station with morse code ID before using it for navigation. The VOR MON (VOR Minimum Operational Network) program ensures that as old VORs are decommissioned, a legacy ILS or VOR approach is available within 100 NM of any position in the CONUS.

VOR Service Volumes

VOR Receiver Checks — "D.E.P.S."

Perform every 30 calendar days before using VOR for IFR navigation (14 CFR 91.171):

Record each VOR check with D.E.P.S.: Date, Error (bearing error), Place, Signature.

VOR Limitations

• Cone of confusion — directly over the station, signals become unreliable
• Reverse sensing — if the OBS is set incorrectly (e.g., flying FROM on a TO indication)
• Line-of-sight — requires line-of-sight between aircraft and station

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

DME operates on 962–1213 MHz (UHF) and is normally paired with a VHF station (VOR/LOC) — it tunes automatically. The airborne DME unit transmits an interrogation signal; the ground facility replies; the airborne unit calculates slant range distance based on reply time.

Slant Range Error

Because DME measures slant range (line-of-sight distance) rather than ground distance, the reading is always greater than actual ground distance. The error is significant when close to the station at high altitude.

• Directly overhead: DME indicates your altitude in NM (e.g., at 6,000 ft AGL, DME shows ~1 NM)
• At 1 NM per 1,000 ft, slant range error becomes negligible when further than 5 NM from the station at typical altitudes

Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)

NDBs operate on 190–535 kHz (low to medium frequency band) and can also receive commercial AM stations at 550–1650 kHz. The ADF (Automatic Direction Finder) in the aircraft always points toward the NDB.

Magnetic Bearing = Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing

A compass locator is a low-powered NDB (at least 25 watts, 15 NM range) installed at the outer marker (OM) or middle marker (MM) on some ILS approaches.

IFR Altitudes

Except for takeoff or landing, or otherwise authorized by the FAA, no person may operate an aircraft under IFR below the minimum altitudes prescribed for the flown segment (14 CFR 91.177). If no minimum altitude is prescribed:

• Mountainous areas: 2,000 ft above the highest obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 NM from the course
• Non-mountainous areas: 1,000 ft above the highest obstacle within 4 NM of the course

IFR Altitude Definitions

Cruise Clearance vs. Maintain

A "cruise clearance" (e.g., "N12345 Cruise 6,000") allocates a block of airspace from the minimum IFR altitude up to and including 6,000. You are free to climb and descend within this block. However, once you start descending and verbally report leaving an altitude, you may not return to it without additional ATC clearance. A cruise clearance also allows you to begin an approach at the destination without additional "cleared for the approach" clearance.

Compare to "Maintain 6,000" — you must stay at 6,000 until given new altitude instructions.

IFR Cruising Altitudes

In uncontrolled airspace, IFR cruising altitudes are based on magnetic course (14 CFR 91.179):

In controlled airspace, IFR cruising altitudes are as assigned by ATC.

Alternate Airport — The "1-2-3" Rule

A destination alternate is always required, unless:

1. An instrument approach is published and available for the destination, AND
2. For at least 1 hour before to 1 hour after the ETA:
   • Ceiling will be at least 2,000 ft above airport elevation, and
   • Visibility will be at least 3 SM

Minimum Weather to List as an Alternate

The alternate airport must have weather at or above these minimums (per the published alternate minimums, or if none):

GPS Alternate Considerations

• Non-WAAS GPS: You can flight-plan GPS approaches at either the destination or the alternate, but not both
• WAAS without baro-VNAV: May base flight plan on LNAV approaches at both destination and alternate
• WAAS with baro-VNAV: May base flight plan on LNAV/VNAV or RNP 0.3 at both destination and alternate

IFR Minimum Fuel Requirements

For IFR flight, you must carry enough fuel to (14 CFR 91.167):

Departure Procedures (DP)

Departure procedures ensure obstacle clearance during the initial climb. They require that the airplane (AIM 5-2-9):

• Crossed the departure end of the runway at least 35 ft AGL
• Reached 400 ft AGL before turning
• Climbs at least 200 feet per NM (FPNM), or as published otherwise on the chart

Two Types of Departure Procedure

DP Equipment Categories

• Non-RNAV DP: VOR, DME, NDB equipment
• RNAV DP: GPS, VOR/DME, DME/DME. Requires at least RNAV 1 performance. Identified with "RNAV" in the title.
• RADAR DP: ATC radar vectors to an ATS route, NAVAID, or fix. Annotated "RADAR REQUIRED."

Chart Symbols for Takeoff Minimums

• ▲ (T symbol): Non-standard takeoff minimums or departure procedures exist — check the Chart Supplement
• ▲ (A symbol): Non-standard IFR alternate minimums exist
• ▲ NA: Alternate minimums not authorized due to unmonitored facility or absence of weather reporting service

IFR Takeoff Minimums

No takeoff minimums are mandated for Part 91 operations. However, prescribed minimums for the runway apply to Parts 121, 125, 129, 135. If no prescribed minimums exist:

• 1-2 engine airplanes: 1 SM visibility
• More than 2 engines: ½ SM visibility

Visual Climb Over Airport (VCOA)

A departure option for IFR aircraft in VMC. The pilot visually conducts climbing turns over the airport up to the published "climb to" altitude, from which they proceed to the instrument portion of the departure.

• Designed to avoid obstacles beyond 3 SM from the departure end of the runway, as an alternative to complying with climb gradients greater than the standard 200 ft/NM
• Advise ATC as early as possible prior to departure of the intent to fly a VCOA
• Published in the "Take-Off Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures" section of the Terminal Procedures

Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR)

A STAR serves as a transition between the enroute structure and a point from which an approach to landing can be made. Key points:

• Transition routes connect enroute fixes to the basic STAR procedure
• Usually named according to the fix at which the basic procedure begins
• As with SIDs, you can state "NO STARs" in remarks to avoid getting a clearance containing a STAR
• RNAV STARs require RNAV 1 performance

Pre-Flight Briefing

• IFR flight plan KMMU → KABE: Brief the route, weather, and alternates
• VOR Navigation: Review radials vs. bearings, TO/FROM logic, CDI vs. bearing pointers
• Holding Procedures: Components of a hold, three entry types
• Instrument Approaches: Brief the approach format — FAA vs. Jeppesen chart logic

ATC Audio Practice

Real ATC recordings from Morristown Municipal Airport (KMMU). Practice extracting weather from ATIS and copying clearances at real-world cadence.

ATIS

IFR Clearance

ForeFlight Briefings from KMMU

• KMMU → KALB Briefing (PDF) — 154 nm, FL110, BREZY V39 SOARS V487 CANAN
• KMMU → KMDT Briefing (PDF) — 145 nm, 6,000 ft, SBJ V30 ETX V162 HAR
• KMMU → KACK Briefing (PDF) — 216 nm, FL110, BREZY V39 CMK BAYYS SEALL V188 GON DEEPO

Simulator Flight Segment

Maneuvers Practice

• Pattern A, Vertical S1, Teardrop — continue refining from Lesson 1
• Hold Entries: Practice 80/260 turn, teardrop entry

Autopilot & Flight Director

Introduction to the G1000 GFC 700 autopilot modes:

VOR Navigation Practice

• Dual VOR tracking: Set NAV1 and NAV2 to different stations, practice identifying position using radial intersections
• Radial vs. Course: Understand the difference between a VOR radial (FROM the station) and a course (direction of flight)
• Intercepts: Practice intercepting a specific radial at a given angle

Bonus Exercise

If time allows: Load the VOR 24 approach at KACK in the G1000. Practice the approach loading workflow and brief the approach using the published chart.

Video: Loading VOR 24 into Nantucket

Key Takeaways

1. VOR radials radiate FROM the station. A VOR radial is always described as the magnetic direction FROM the station. If you're on the 090 radial, the station is to your west.
2. TO/FROM tells you which side of the station you're on relative to the selected course — not your direction of flight. You can fly any heading and TO/FROM stays the same for a given position and OBS setting.
3. MEA guarantees nav signal and obstacle clearance. MOCA guarantees obstacle clearance but nav signal only within 22 NM of the VOR. Know when you can descend below MEA to MOCA.
4. The 1-2-3 rule determines if you need an alternate: 1 hour before to 1 hour after ETA, 2,000 ft ceiling, 3 SM visibility. If weather meets this, no alternate required.
5. IFR fuel = destination + alternate (if required) + 45 minutes at normal cruise.
6. ODP provides obstacle clearance only. SID provides obstacle clearance plus route simplification. You can decline either by stating "NO SIDs" in remarks.
7. 200 ft/NM is the standard climb gradient. If you can't make it, you need to fly the published ODP or don't depart.

Oral Exam Self-Test

1. What frequency range does a VOR operate on? What frequencies are reserved for localizers?
2. What are the three classes of VOR service volume and their altitude/distance limits?
3. How often must the VOR be checked for IFR flight? Name the five check methods and their tolerances.
4. What information must you log for a VOR check? (D.E.P.S.)
5. What is DME slant range error? When is it most significant?
6. Define MEA, MOCA, MRA, OROCA, and MVA. When can you fly below MEA?
7. What is the difference between a "cruise clearance" and "maintain" an altitude?
8. What IFR cruising altitude rule applies in uncontrolled airspace?
9. State the 1-2-3 rule for alternates. What are the minimum weather requirements to list an airport as an alternate?
10. How much fuel must you carry for an IFR flight?
11. What is the difference between an ODP and a SID?
12. What climb gradient is assumed for all departure procedures unless otherwise published?
13. What does the triangle-T symbol mean on an approach chart? The triangle-A? The triangle-A NA?
14. Can a Part 91 pilot depart with zero visibility in IFR conditions? What are the risks?
15. What is a Visual Climb Over Airport (VCOA)?
16. What is a STAR and when would you decline one?

Post-Flight Discussion Points

• Common errors: confusing radial with course, TO/FROM logic mistakes
• Hold entry identification — could you determine the correct entry on the first attempt?
• Use of G1000 bearing pointers and OBS mode
• Autopilot mode selection — HDG vs. NAV, FLCH vs. VS

Pilot Preparation for Lesson 3

Lesson 3 focuses on mastering holding patterns and beginning VOR approaches (KACK → KPVD).

Reading

1. Instrument Flying Handbook: Chapter 10 — Holding Patterns; Chapter 4 — Instrument Approaches
2. Instrument Procedures Handbook: Holding Pattern Entries, Approach Segment Structure
3. Everything Explained for the Professional Pilot: Holds section, Instrument Approaches Intro, Non-Precision Approaches, Take-off and Alternates

Videos

• Instrument Holds in G1000 | Two Methods
• IAF vs. Vectors + Vector-to-Final
• Jeppesen FMS Verification
• Common Briefing Mistakes

Practice

• File an IFR flight plan (e.g., KMMU to KABE) using ForeFlight
• Voice-record approach briefings using FAA/Jeppesen charts — focus on format and confidence
• Review IFR Maneuvers PDF: Teardrop Entries, 80/260

Resources

• Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15B)
• Instrument Procedures Handbook
• Instrument Rating Files — VOR approach plates for KABE, Victor airway charts, autopilot reference

Holding patterns are one of the most tested topics on both the written exam and the oral. More importantly, they are a routine part of IFR flying — ATC uses them for traffic sequencing, weather delays, and approach spacing. This lesson gives you the knowledge and practice to enter any hold correctly on the first attempt.

You will also fly your first VOR approach — the VOR 24 at Nantucket (KACK). This approach ties together everything from Lessons 1 and 2: attitude flying, VOR tracking, and now procedure execution.

Lesson Objectives

• Master holding pattern entries: direct, teardrop, parallel
• Refine understanding of VOR radial tracking in hold and approach contexts
• Practice non-precision VOR approaches using real-world procedures
• Understand and apply concepts of IAF vs. vectors to final
• Use manual and autopilot modes to execute IFR approaches

Background Briefing Topics

• Holding pattern components — fix, inbound course, outbound leg, turns
• Three entry types: Direct, Parallel, Teardrop (70°/110° sectors)
• The "imaginary airfoil" method for determining entry type
• Maximum holding airspeeds by altitude
• Holding pattern timing — inbound leg: 1 min below 14,000, 1.5 min above
• Outbound leg timing — when to start, abeam the fix
• Holding at an uncharted fix — what ATC will tell you
• Hold in lieu of procedure turn
• NDB tracking concepts — outbound and inbound procedures

Simulator Exercise Topics

• IFR clearance practice with real KACK ATC audio
• VOR 24 approach at KACK — loading, different IAFs, missed approach flow
• Approach execution: autopilot with NAV, manual with raw data
• VOR 6 at KMVY — radar vectoring and vectors to final (if time allows)
• G1000: flying a VOR approach with CDI on GPS vs. OBS on NAV

Flight Plan

Pilot Preparation

1. Read: Instrument Flying Handbook — Chapter 10: Holding Patterns; Chapter 4: Instrument Approaches
2. Read: Instrument Procedures Handbook — Holding Pattern Entries, Approach Segment Structure
3. Read: Everything Explained for the Professional Pilot — Holds, Instrument Approaches Intro, Non-Precision Approaches
4. Watch: Instrument Holds in G1000 | Two Methods
5. Watch: IAF vs. Vectors + Vector-to-Final
6. Practice: Voice-record approach briefings using FAA/Jeppesen charts for VOR 24 KACK

Holding Pattern Entries — Direct, Parallel, Teardrop

There are three ways to enter a holding pattern, determined by your heading relative to the holding fix. The entry sectors are divided by the 70°/110° lines drawn from the holding fix along the inbound course.

The Three Entry Types

• Direct (D): You arrive from the side of the holding pattern. Fly directly to the fix, turn outbound in the holding direction, and fly the pattern. This is the simplest entry — you're already on the correct side.
• Teardrop (T): You arrive from a sector roughly opposite the outbound leg. Fly to the fix, then turn to a heading 30° from the inbound course on the holding side, fly for the appropriate time (usually 1 minute), then turn inbound to intercept the holding course.
• Parallel (P): You arrive from a sector on the non-holding side. Fly to the fix, turn outbound and fly a heading parallel to the inbound course (but in the opposite direction), fly for the appropriate time, then turn back toward the fix to intercept the inbound course.

Standard vs. Non-Standard Holds

The "Imaginary Airfoil" Method

A practical way to determine your hold entry: you're on your way direct to the holding fix. Put a dot on the chart where you are. Now imagine the holding pattern is an airfoil with the fix representing the front wheel (at the bottom of the airfoil). Place your 70°/110° line so it seems to blow back over the top of the wing.

According to Bernoulli, the wind blows faster over the top... so you can now visualize which quadrant you're in: Direct, Parallel, or Teardrop. You're in and plan the proper heading to turn to after you cross the fix.

Maximum Holding Pattern Speeds

Holding at USAF airfields: 310 KIAS max. Navy fields: 230 KIAS max. Unless otherwise depicted.

If the maximum airspeed for the hold is other than standard, it may be depicted either inside or just outside the charted racetrack symbol.

Holding Pattern Speeds and Timing

Speed Reduction on Approach

When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not been received, the pilot is expected to start a speed reduction so that the aircraft will cross the fix initially at or below the maximum holding airspeed.

Turn Technique

Make all turns during entry and while holding at:

• 3° per second, or
• 30° bank angle, or
• 25° bank provided a flight director system is used

Use whichever requires the LEAST bank.

Inbound Leg Timing

Outbound Leg Timing

Timing for the outbound leg begins over/abeam the fix, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position cannot be determined, start timing when turn to outbound is completed.

Reporting

Pilots should report time and altitude when entering a hold, and report leaving a hold.

Holding at a Fix Where the Pattern Is Not Charted

When ATC assigns a hold at an uncharted fix, the clearance will include (AIM 5-3-8, FAA-H-8083-16):

1. Direction of holding FROM the fix — in terms of the eight cardinal compass points (N, NE, E, SE, etc.)
2. Radial, course, bearing, airway or route on which the aircraft is to hold
3. Leg length — in miles if DME or RNAV is to be used, or otherwise in minutes
4. Direction of turn — if LEFT turns are to be made (standard RIGHT turns are default)
5. Time to Expect Further Clearance (EFC)

Hold in Lieu of Procedure Turn

When a holding pattern is published as a heavy bold racetrack on an approach chart (in place of a procedure turn), it serves as the course reversal for the approach. Key rules:

If an aircraft is established in a published holding pattern at an assigned altitude above the published minimum holding altitude and subsequently cleared for the approach, the pilot may descend to the published minimum holding altitude. The holding pattern is only a segment of the IAP if it is published on the instrument procedure chart and is used in lieu of a procedure turn.

NDB Tracking Concepts

Primary NDB concepts for approach and holding (AIM 1-1-2, 1-1-8, FAA-H-8083-15, FAA-H-8083-16, FAA-H-8083-25):

1. PARALLEL the course you want to be on (inbound or outbound) — the HEAD of the needle ALWAYS points to the COURSE (and the wind)
2. While paralleling the course, if the head of the needle is:
   • LEFT of center — turn LEFT 30° or 45° for a few seconds
   • RIGHT of center — turn RIGHT 30° or 45° for a few seconds

NDB Outbound

1. Parallel the outbound course
2. Turn towards the HEAD of the needle — 30° or 45° for a few seconds
3. When the TAIL (superimposed on the DG) points to the outbound course — you're on it. Turn back and check.
4. The Procedure Turn is always AWAY from the fix (unless nearing the 10-mile limit)

NDB Inbound

1. Parallel the inbound course
2. Turn towards the HEAD of the needle — 30° or 45° for a few seconds
3. When the HEAD (superimposed on the DG) points to the inbound course — you're on it. Turn back and check.

Non-Precision Approach Descent — "Dive & Drive"

When established on the inbound course — whether the station is on or off the field — the Dive & Drive method calls for descending to MDA as quickly as possible, at least 1,000 FPM. Add power as necessary when you reach the MDA.

Station ON the Field

1. When established on the inbound course — drop the gear, flaps and descend to MDA as quickly as possible — at least 1,000 FPM
2. Add power as necessary when you reach the MDA

Station OFF the Field

1. When crossing over the NDB/VOR inbound — start TIME — drop the gear, flaps and descend to MDA as quickly as possible — at least 1,000 FPM
2. Add power as necessary when you reach the MDA

Review from Lesson 2

• VOR fundamentals: radials, bearing pointers, TO/FROM logic
• Autopilot operation: HDG, NAV, FLCH, VS modes
• Approach loading and briefing workflow
• Pattern A, Vertical S1, and Teardrop maneuvers (as needed)

Pre-Flight Briefing

• IFR Flight Plan KACK → KPVD: Route planning and weather brief
• Approach Briefing:
  • VOR 24 KACK — loading, different IAFs, review missed approach flow
  • VOR 6 KMVY — no procedure turn due to radar vectoring
  • Flying a VOR approach with the CDI on GPS and OBS 1 on NAV 1
• IAF vs. Vector: Definitions and G1000 loading techniques. Watch: IAF vs. Vectors Video

ATC Audio Practice

Real ATC recordings from Nantucket Memorial Airport (KACK). Practice extracting coastal weather from ATIS and copying IFR clearances.

ATIS

IFR Clearance

ForeFlight Briefings

• KFRG → KMVY Briefing (PDF) — 149 nm, 9,000 ft, BAYYS SEALL V188 GON V374 MVY
• KFRG → KACY Briefing (PDF) — 101 nm, 4,000 ft, JFK DIXIE V1 HOWIE
• KMMU → KACK Briefing (PDF) — 216 nm, FL110

Simulator Flight Segment

VOR 24 Approach at KACK

Execute the VOR 24 approach at Nantucket. Treat it as a non-radar environment — you will need to make a full procedure turn or hold entry. Practice three modes:

1. Autopilot with NAV and VNAV: Pay emphasis on situation awareness, course reversal, and approach configuration
2. Autopilot in HDG and VS: Manual course management with autopilot altitude assistance
3. Manual flight using raw data: Hand-fly the entire approach using CDI and basic instruments

VOR 6 at KMVY (If Time Allows)

Focus on radar vectoring and vectors to final. No procedure turn — ATC provides heading and altitude to intercept final approach course.

Key Takeaways

1. Three entry types, determined by your heading relative to the fix: Direct (simplest — turn and hold), Teardrop (30° offset then intercept), Parallel (fly opposite direction then turn back).
2. Standard holds use RIGHT turns. If ATC doesn't specify, right turns are assumed. Non-standard holds use left turns and must be explicitly stated.
3. Maximum holding speeds are absolute: 200 KIAS below 6,000, 230 KIAS up to 14,000, 265 KIAS above 14,000.
4. Inbound leg timing: 1 minute at or below 14,000 MSL, 1½ minutes above 14,000 MSL. Outbound timing starts abeam the fix or when the turn to outbound is completed.
5. Hold-in-lieu-of-PT: When a bold racetrack replaces a procedure turn, you must fly the standard entry. No extra circuits needed if cleared for the approach at the correct altitude.
6. Dive & Drive on non-precision approaches: Descend to MDA at 1,000 FPM minimum. Get down early so you have time to find the airport. Airspeed is your primary instrument at low altitude.

Oral Exam Self-Test

1. Name the three holding pattern entry types and describe when each is used.
2. Draw the 70°/110° entry sector diagram for a standard (right turn) hold. Label D, P, and T sectors.
3. What are the maximum holding airspeeds at 5,000 ft? At 10,000 ft? At 18,000 ft?
4. What is the standard inbound leg time for a hold at 8,000 ft? At 16,000 ft?
5. When does outbound leg timing begin?
6. What is the difference between a standard and non-standard holding pattern?
7. If ATC says "Hold west of Elvis on the 270° radial, left turns, 10-mile legs, EFC 1520Z" — which direction are the turns? What entry would you use arriving from the east?
8. What five pieces of information will ATC provide for a hold at an uncharted fix?
9. When must you fly the holding pattern entry for a hold-in-lieu-of-procedure-turn?
10. What is the "Dive & Drive" method? Why is it preferred for non-precision approaches in small aircraft?
11. What should you do if assigned a hold while still many miles from the fix?
12. What are the differences between GPS/RNAV holds and conventional holds?
13. Can you descend from a holding altitude above the published minimum when cleared for the approach?

Post-Flight Discussion

• Which hold entries worked best? Which gave you trouble?
• Radial tracking and approach timing issues
• Configuration management: flaps, power, autopilot usage
• Did you correctly distinguish between IAF arrival and ATC vectors?

Pilot Preparation for Lesson 4

Lesson 4 focuses on non-precision approaches and missed approach procedures (KEWR → N07).

Reading

1. Everything Explained: Non-Precision Approaches section (complete), Take-off and Alternates
2. Instrument Procedures Handbook: Pages 4-37 to 4-42 — Glidepath, Missed Approach, IAP Brief
3. Instrument Flying Handbook: Approach segment structure, descent planning, alternate minimums

Videos

• Watch: Flying the KUAO LOC 17
• Review approach briefing format and common mistakes

Additional ATC Audio

Preview the KFRG → KHPN route for future lessons:

Resources

• Instrument Rating Files — Holding pattern entry guide, VOR 24 approach plate for KACK, approach plates for KPVD
• Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15B)

Non-precision approaches are instrument approach procedures that provide lateral guidance but no electronic glide slope. You manage your own descent to the Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) and must visually identify the runway environment before descending further. This lesson covers the theory, procedures, and practical execution of VOR, NDB, and LOC approaches.

This is where your holding pattern skills from Lesson 3 get put to work — many non-precision approaches use a hold-in-lieu-of-procedure-turn for course reversal.

Lesson Objectives

• Understand the structure of non-precision approaches: initial, intermediate, final, and missed approach segments
• Execute VOR, NDB, and LOC approaches in the simulator
• Apply the Dive & Drive descent method to reach MDA efficiently
• Understand circling approach requirements and protected areas
• Execute missed approach procedures correctly
• Continue refining holding patterns with timing and wind correction

Background Briefing Topics

• Non-precision approach definition — no glide slope, MDA not DA
• Approach segments: initial, intermediate, final, missed
• LOC approach — ILS without glideslope
• Localizer backcourse approaches
• Straight-in vs. circling approach criteria
• Circling approach protected areas (standard vs. expanded radii)
• Aircraft approach categories (A through E)
• Approach chart anatomy — reading the plate
• CDI full-scale deflection: localizer (2.5°) vs. VOR (10–12°)
• Missed approach procedures and callouts

Simulator Exercise Topics

• Non-precision approach execution at N07
• Dive & Drive descent technique practice
• Missed approach execution and re-entry into the hold
• Circling approach concepts (situational awareness)
• Advanced holding with wind correction and timing adjustments

Pilot Preparation

1. Read: Everything Explained — Non-Precision Approaches (complete section)
2. Read: Instrument Procedures Handbook — Pages 4-37 to 4-42: Glidepath, Missed Approach, IAP Brief
3. Watch: Flying the KUAO LOC 17
4. Review: Approach briefing format — practice briefing a non-precision approach aloud

Non-Precision Approach Defined

A standard instrument approach procedure in which no electronic glide slope is provided. Examples include VOR, TACAN, NDB, LOC, ASR, LDA, SDF, LP, LNAV, and stand-alone GPS approaches. Descent minimums are expressed as Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) — the lowest altitude to which descent is authorized on final approach or during circle-to-land maneuvering when no glide slope is provided. Minimums for approach are predicated on VISIBILITY, NOT CEILING.

LOC Approach

A LOC approach is essentially an ILS without glideslope — a non-precision approach (AIM 1-1-9, 1-1-10, FAA-H-8083-15, FAA-H-8083-16).

1. When the glideslope fails, the ILS reverts to a non-precision localizer approach. ATC will clear pilots for the approach as it is named on the chart (i.e., localizer only approach).
2. Start time at the Final Approach Fix (Maltese Cross) inbound to determine the missed approach point.
3. After passing the FAF, descend as quickly as possible (i.e., DIVE & DRIVE) to reach MDA well before the missed approach point.

Aircraft Approach Categories

Approach categories are based on V_REF (if specified) or 1.3 times V_SO at maximum landing weight. If maneuvering at a higher airspeed, you should use the category for the airspeed you are using — the higher turning radii may take you beyond the obstruction clearance area (14 CFR 97.3, AIM 5-4-7, FAA-H-8083-15, FAA-H-8083-16).

CDI Full-Scale Deflection

Understanding CDI sensitivity is critical for approach accuracy (FAA-H-8083-15, FAA-H-8083-16):

The localizer is approximately 4 times more sensitive than a VOR. Small heading corrections are essential on a localizer approach.

Straight-In Approach

The final approach segment is begun without having first executed a procedure turn (5-4-5 thru 5-4-9, 5-4-20, 5-4-26, FAA-H-8083-15, FAA-H-8083-16, AC 150/5300-13). Requirements for straight-in minimums to be published:

• The final approach course must be within 30° of the landing runway
• The descent gradient must not exceed 400 ft/NM (3.77°) from the FAF to the runway

Exceeding either qualifies only for circling minimums. Straight-in minimums require at least non-precision runway markings. If a runway has only basic visual markings, it will normally be assigned circling minimums.

Circling Approach

An approach is considered a circling approach if it requires a turn of more than 30° from the final approach course for a ground-based approach, or 15° for an RNAV approach. A LETTER is used instead of a runway number (e.g., VOR-A). A circling approach is also designated if the final approach descent is unusually steep or obstacles near the airport require a descent rate greater than 400 ft per NM (3.77°).

Circling Approach Rules

1. Circling MDA only offers 300 feet of obstacle clearance — be cautious in extremely low temperatures where true altitude may be significantly lower than indicated
2. Protected areas are defined by arcs drawn from the end of each runway
3. Direction of turns: unless adhering to specific ATC instructions, all turns must be made to the LEFT unless approved signals indicate right turns (14 CFR 91.126(b)(1))
4. You cannot descend below MDA until the aircraft is continuously in a position from which a descent to a landing can be made at a normal rate using normal maneuvers
5. You must have flight visibility not less than prescribed, and at least one runway visual reference distinctly visible and identifiable
6. If visual reference is lost while circling to land, make an initial climbing TURN TOWARD the landing runway and continue the turn until established on the missed approach course

Circling Approach Radii

Expanded circling radii (post-2012, identified by a bold "C" in a circle on the circling line) account for true airspeed increase with altitude. These vary by both MDA altitude and approach category.

Missed Approach

Each pilot operating an aircraft shall immediately execute an appropriate missed approach procedure when either of the following conditions exist (14 CFR 91.175):

1. Whenever the requirements of paragraph #1 are not met (required visual references) at either of the following times:
   • When the aircraft is being operated below MDA, or
   • Upon arrival at the missed approach point and at any time after that until touchdown
2. Whenever an identifiable part of the airport is not distinctly visible to the pilot during a circling maneuver at or above MDA (unless the inability to see is only from a normal bank of the aircraft during the circling approach)

Simulator Flight Segment

Non-Precision Approach at N07

Execute a non-precision approach to Lincoln Park Airport. Focus on:

1. Approach briefing: Read and brief the approach plate completely before beginning
2. Procedure turn or hold-in-lieu-of-PT: Determine the correct course reversal method
3. Dive & Drive descent: After the FAF, descend at 1,000 FPM or greater to reach MDA quickly
4. Level at MDA: Add power, maintain altitude, and look for the runway environment
5. Missed approach: Execute the published missed approach procedure — max power, pitch up, configure, and fly the missed approach routing

Multiple Approaches

Time permitting, fly the approach multiple times using different methods:

• First attempt: Autopilot-assisted (NAV mode with manual altitude management)
• Second attempt: Hand-flying with flight director guidance
• Third attempt: Raw data — no flight director, no autopilot

Advanced Holding Practice

After a missed approach, practice re-entering the hold with:

• Correct entry type determination under time pressure
• Timing adjustments for wind (shorten/lengthen outbound leg)
• Altitude management during descent in the hold

Circling Approach Awareness

While a full circling approach may not be flown today, build situational awareness:

• Identify when circling minimums apply (final approach course more than 30° from runway)
• Visualize the circling protected area relative to the runway
• Know the missed approach procedure if visual reference is lost during a circle: climbing turn toward the landing runway

Key Takeaways

1. Non-precision = no glide slope. You descend to MDA and must see the runway environment to go lower. Minimums are based on visibility, not ceiling.
2. LOC approach = ILS without glideslope. Same localizer signal, same CDI sensitivity (2.5° full-scale), but you manage descent to MDA yourself.
3. Dive & Drive gets you to MDA early. Descend at 1,000+ FPM after the FAF so you have time to find the airport before the missed approach point.
4. Approach categories matter. Cat A: 0–90 kts, Cat B: 91–120 kts. If you fly faster, use the higher category's minimums and protected areas.
5. Circling = more than 30° offset (15° for RNAV). Only 300 ft obstacle clearance. If you lose visual reference, climbing turn toward the landing runway.
6. Localizer is 4x more sensitive than VOR. Full-scale deflection at 2.5° vs. 10–12°. Small, precise corrections are essential.
7. Missed approach is mandatory when you reach the MAP without the required visual references, or if you lose visual reference during a circling approach.

Oral Exam Self-Test

1. Define a non-precision approach. Give five examples of non-precision approach types.
2. What is the difference between MDA and DA?
3. What is a LOC approach and how does it differ from an ILS?
4. What is CDI full-scale deflection on a localizer? On a VOR?
5. What are the five approach categories and their speed ranges?
6. When does a circling approach apply instead of a straight-in approach?
7. What is the circling approach radius for Category A? Category B?
8. What obstacle clearance does a circling MDA provide?
9. What should you do if you lose visual reference during a circling approach?
10. When must you execute a missed approach? (List all conditions.)
11. Are approach minimums predicated on ceiling or visibility?
12. Is a missed approach required if you get full-scale CDI deflection on a LOC approach?
13. What is the Dive & Drive technique? Why is airspeed your primary instrument at low altitude?
14. What does the Maltese Cross symbol indicate on an approach chart?
15. What temperature conditions can make circling approaches especially dangerous?

Pilot Preparation for Lesson 5

Lesson 5 covers precision approaches (ILS) and IFR departure procedures (KMMU → KLGA).

Reading

1. Everything Explained: Precision Approaches section (complete), IFR Departures section
2. Instrument Procedures Handbook: ILS components, glideslope intercept altitude, decision altitude
3. Instrument Flying Handbook: Chapter on ILS approach procedures

Key Topics to Preview

• ILS components: localizer, glideslope, marker beacons
• Decision Altitude (DA) vs. Decision Height (DH)
• Final Approach Fix (FAF) and GlideSlope Intercept Altitude (GSIA)
• False glideslopes — 3°/6°/9° lobes
• ODP vs. SID departure procedures (review from Lesson 2)
• GPS approach introduction

Resources

• Instrument Rating Files — Non-precision approach plates (LOC, VOR), circling approach minimums reference
• Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15B)

This lesson marks a major step — you move from non-precision approaches (where you manage your own descent) to precision approaches where an electronic glideslope guides you down to decision altitude. The ILS is the gold standard of precision approaches, and understanding its components, limitations, and procedures is essential for the checkride and real-world IFR flying.

You will also practice SID departures from Teterboro (KTEB) — one of the busiest GA airports in the New York metro area — and get introduced to GPS approaches.

Lesson Objectives

• Execute precision approaches (ILS, LPV) to decision altitude using flight director and autopilot
• Learn missed approach automation and use of TO/GA
• Understand and brief SID procedures (IFR departures)
• Practice GPS approaches with LNAV/VNAV, LPV minimums
• Manage G1000 sequencing and annunciators during complex approaches

Background Briefing Topics

• Precision approach defined — ILS and PAR
• ILS components: localizer, glideslope, marker beacons
• Decision Altitude (DA) vs. Decision Height (DH)
• Final Approach Fix (FAF) and GlideSlope Intercept Altitude (GSIA)
• False glideslopes — 3°/6°/9° side lobes
• Landing under IFR — 91.175 visual reference requirements
• Precision-like approaches (APV): Baro-VNAV, LNAV/VNAV, LPV
• GPS approach types and minimums
• Missed approach procedure and configuration
• Rate of descent rule of thumb: groundspeed × 5

Flight Plan

Pilot Preparation

1. Read: Everything Explained — Precision Approaches, GPS Approaches, IFR Departures
2. Read: Instrument Procedures Handbook — Pages 4-63 to 4-66 (ILS Categories + Simultaneous Approaches)
3. Read: Instrument Flying Handbook — Missed Approach Section and Attitude Recovery
4. Watch: Approach Configuration 1/2 a DOT
5. Watch: Video study: Search your preferred platform for "Precision Approaches - ILS, LPV" and "Missed Approach Procedures"
6. Watch: Video study: Search your preferred platform for "Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs)"

Precision Approach Defined

A precision approach is a standard instrument approach procedure that provides an electronic glide slope for vertical guidance. The two types are the Instrument Landing System (ILS) and the Precision Approach Radar (PAR). Descent minimums on a precision approach are expressed as Decision Altitude (DA) — the altitude at which you must decide to land or execute the missed approach.

The GBAS Landing System (GLS) is a newer alternative to the ILS. GLS uses GPS augmented by a ground-based augmentation system (GBAS) to provide precision lateral and vertical guidance equivalent to a Category I ILS. GLS approaches are charted similarly to ILS approaches and use DA for minimums.

ILS Components

The ILS provides three types of guidance to bring the aircraft from the approach environment to the runway (AIM 1-1-9):

1. Localizer (lateral guidance): Provides left/right course deviation. The localizer transmitter is located at the far end of the runway and broadcasts on frequencies 108.10 to 111.95 MHz (odd tenths only). The localizer course width is adjusted so that full-scale CDI deflection equals 2.5° from centerline — approximately 4 times more sensitive than a VOR.
2. Glideslope (vertical guidance): Provides an electronic descent path, typically at 3°. The glideslope transmitter is located beside the runway, offset from the centerline near the touchdown zone. It is automatically paired with the localizer frequency.
3. Marker beacons (position): Identify specific points along the approach path. The Outer Marker (OM) identifies the approximate glideslope intercept point. The Middle Marker (MM) is near decision altitude. Many marker beacon facilities have been decommissioned and replaced by GPS-based fixes or DME.

Final Approach Fix (FAF) & Glideslope Intercept Altitude (GSIA)

The Final Approach Fix is the fix from which the final approach segment begins. On approach charts:

• Maltese Cross symbol = FAF for non-precision approaches
• Lightning bolt symbol = FAF for precision approaches (glideslope intercept point)

The Glideslope Intercept Altitude (GSIA) is the published minimum and maximum altitude at which the glideslope should be intercepted. Statistically, 98% of glideslopes are intercepted from below at the GSIA — this is the correct and safe technique.

False Glideslopes

The glideslope transmitter produces side lobes at multiples of the primary 3° beam. These false glideslopes will provide erroneous guidance:

The 9° false glideslope is especially dangerous because its CDI commands behave normally — the pilot may not realize they are on a false signal until the descent rate becomes absurdly steep.

Prevention: Always intercept the glideslope from below at the published GSIA. If the glideslope needle is already centered or coming down from above when you have not yet reached the intercept point, you are likely on a false glideslope.

Landing Under IFR — 14 CFR 91.175

No pilot may operate an aircraft below the DA/DH or MDA unless all three conditions are met simultaneously:

1. The aircraft is continuously in a position to land at a normal rate of descent using normal maneuvers
2. The flight visibility is not less than the visibility prescribed for the approach being used
3. At least one of the following visual references is distinctly visible and identifiable:

Precision-Like Approaches (APV)

Approach Procedures with Vertical guidance (APV) are not required to meet ICAO precision approach standards, but they provide both course and glidepath deviation information. Types include:

• Baro-VNAV: Uses barometric altitude for vertical guidance. Temperature-sensitive — cold weather reduces accuracy.
• LDA with glidepath: A localizer-type directional aid with added vertical guidance.
• LNAV/VNAV: GPS lateral with barometric or WAAS vertical guidance. Uses DA (not MDA) for minimums.
• LPV (Localizer Performance with Vertical guidance): WAAS-based approach that provides precision-like guidance. Can have minimums as low as 200 ft DA — comparable to a Category I ILS. Requires WAAS-capable GPS.

APV approaches use Decision Altitude (DA) rather than MDA because vertical guidance is provided. However, they are technically classified separately from precision approaches (ILS/PAR).

Missed Approach Configuration

When decision altitude is reached without adequate visual reference, execute the missed approach immediately. The sequence:

1. Disconnect autopilot — take manual control
2. Mixture, prop, throttle forward — maximum power configuration
3. TO/GA — engage takeoff/go-around mode on the flight director
4. Pitch 7.5° to 10° nose up — establish a positive climb
5. Flaps 10° — reduce drag while maintaining lift
6. Positive rate — gear up — confirm climb before retracting gear
7. 200 ft AGL — flaps up — clean configuration
8. 400 ft AGL — verify missed approach altitude — confirm the published altitude and begin the missed approach routing
9. Notify ATC — "Missed approach" with intentions

Stabilized Approach Criteria

A stabilized approach is one of the most important safety concepts in instrument flying. The approach is considered stabilized when all of the following are met:

1. The aircraft is at the proper airspeed (V_REF or target approach speed)
2. The aircraft is on the correct flight path (localizer and glideslope centered)
3. The aircraft is in the correct landing configuration (gear down, flaps as required)
4. Appropriate power is set for the approach
5. The descent angle and rate are normal (approximately groundspeed x 5 FPM)
6. Only minor corrections are required to maintain the approach path
7. Normal bracketing — CDI deviations within ±5°

If the approach is not stabilized by 1,000 feet AGL in IMC (or 500 feet in VMC), execute a go-around. An unstabilized approach is one of the leading causes of approach-and-landing accidents.

Segment 1 — SID Departure Practice at KTEB

Start cold and dark at Teterboro Airport (KTEB). Load and brief the TEB SID (Standard Instrument Departure).

Departure Exercise

1. Brief the SID: Review the TEB departure for each runway — identify initial heading, top altitude, transition routes, and altitude restrictions
2. Practice departure from every runway to the published top altitude
3. Identify threats for each runway: Terrain, traffic conflicts, noise abatement turns, altitude restrictions before fixes
4. Use flight director through the entire climb — track heading bugs, verify altitude captures, and confirm course sequencing on the G1000

ATC Communications — KTEB Departure

Listen to each audio clip and practice your readback. Focus on extracting the clearance limit, route, altitude, departure frequency, and squawk code (CRAFT).

Segment 2 — Full Procedure LOC Approach at KPRB

Reposition to Paso Robles Municipal Airport (KPRB). Execute the LOC 11 approach as a full procedure.

1. Brief the approach: Identify the IAF (PRB), final approach course, FAF, MDA, missed approach point, and missed approach procedure. State the full briefing aloud.
2. Join the LOC 11 at PRB IAF: Begin the full procedure — course reversal or hold-in-lieu as published
3. Track the localizer inbound: Intercept and maintain the final approach course. Manage descent to MDA using stepdown fixes or dive and drive as appropriate.
4. Execute missed approach: At the MAP without visual reference, execute the full missed approach procedure:
   • "Missed approach" — announce
   • Max power, pitch 7.5-10° nose up
   • Flaps 10, positive rate gear up
   • 200 ft flaps up, 400 ft verify missed altitude
   • Fly the published missed approach routing
   • Contact ATC with intentions

Segment 3 — ILS Precision Approach at KSBP

Reposition for the ILS 11 at San Luis Obispo (KSBP). This is your primary precision approach practice.

1. Brief the ILS 11: Localizer frequency, inbound course, glideslope intercept altitude, DA, missed approach procedure
2. Intercept the glideslope from below at the GSIA: Confirm you are at the published altitude and the glideslope needle is coming down to center — never chase it from above
3. Track GS and LOC using flight director/autopilot:
   • First attempt: Autopilot in APR mode — monitor the system, verify it tracks correctly
   • Second attempt: Hand-fly with flight director — follow the FD bars for pitch and bank
   • Third attempt: Raw data — CDI for localizer, glideslope indicator for vertical, no FD
4. At DA: If visual references are not acquired, immediately execute the missed approach

Focus Points

• Rate of descent: Use groundspeed x 5. At 90 kts GS, target 450 FPM
• Corrections: Small heading changes (2-3°) on localizer. Pitch adjustments in half-bar increments on glideslope
• Stabilized approach: Configured by glideslope intercept — gear down, flaps set, approach speed established
• Scan pattern: Attitude indicator primary, with regular crosschecks of CDI, glideslope, airspeed, and altitude

Key Takeaways

1. DA vs. MDA — know the difference. Decision Altitude (DA) is used for precision and APV approaches — you decide to land or go around at DA. Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) is for non-precision approaches — you level off and look for the runway. DA requires an immediate decision; MDA allows continued flight at that altitude to the MAP.
2. ILS = localizer + glideslope + markers. The localizer provides lateral guidance (2.5° full-scale), the glideslope provides a 3° descent path, and marker beacons (or GPS fixes) identify positions along the approach. Localizer frequencies are 108.10-111.95 MHz, odd tenths only.
3. False glideslopes exist at 6° and 9°. The 6° false glideslope has reversed CDI commands. The 9° false glideslope has normal-appearing commands but an impossibly steep descent. Always intercept from below at the published GSIA to avoid both.
4. 91.175 requires three conditions to descend below DA. You must be in position to land normally, flight visibility must meet minimums, and at least one of 10 visual references must be distinctly visible. Know all 10 references — this is a checkride favorite.
5. Groundspeed x 5 = required rate of descent. For a standard 3° glideslope: 90 kts GS = 450 FPM, 120 kts GS = 600 FPM. If your descent rate is significantly higher, suspect a false glideslope or configuration problem.
6. Missed approach is a specific sequence. Disconnect AP, max power, TO/GA, pitch 7.5-10°, flaps 10, positive rate gear up, 200 ft flaps up, 400 ft verify missed altitude, notify ATC. Practice this flow until it is automatic.
7. GPS approaches offer multiple minimums. LNAV (lateral only, uses MDA), LNAV/VNAV (lateral + baro vertical, uses DA), LPV (WAAS precision-like, uses DA — can be as low as 200 ft). LPV requires WAAS-capable GPS. The same chart may show all three lines of minimums.

Oral Exam Self-Test

1. Define a precision approach. What two types qualify as precision approaches?
2. What are the three components of an ILS? Describe the function of each.
3. What is the localizer frequency range? How do you distinguish localizer frequencies from VOR frequencies in the same range?
4. What is CDI full-scale deflection on a localizer? How does this compare to a VOR?
5. Explain false glideslopes. At what angles do they occur, and how do the CDI commands differ for each?
6. How do you prevent capturing a false glideslope?
7. What three conditions must be met to descend below DA/DH under 14 CFR 91.175?
8. Name all 10 visual references that satisfy 91.175.
9. What is the 100-foot rule regarding approach lights?
10. What is Decision Altitude (DA) and how does it differ from Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA)?
11. What is the Glideslope Intercept Altitude (GSIA) and why is it important?
12. What does the lightning bolt symbol indicate on an approach chart? The Maltese Cross?
13. Describe the missed approach configuration sequence from DA.
14. What is an LPV approach? What equipment is required? How low can LPV minimums go?
15. What are the stabilized approach criteria? At what altitude should you go around if not stabilized?

Pilot Preparation for Lesson 6

Lesson 6 covers LOC and VOR approaches without vectors and deepens your GPS approach mastery.

Reading

1. Everything Explained: LOC Approach section (review), VOR Approach procedures, GPS Approaches (complete)
2. Instrument Procedures Handbook: Full procedure approaches, procedure turns, hold-in-lieu-of-PT
3. Instrument Flying Handbook: Non-precision approach techniques, timing and descent planning

Key Topics to Preview

• Full procedure approaches without ATC vectors — navigating to the IAF independently
• Procedure turn types: 45/180, 80/260, hold-in-lieu-of-PT
• VOR approach step-down fixes and MDA management
• GPS approach sequencing on the G1000: terminal mode, approach mode, scaling changes
• RAIM requirements and GPS NOTAM checks
• Timing for non-precision approaches — groundspeed-based timing tables

Resources

• Instrument Rating Files — ILS approach plates, GPS approach plates, SID charts for KTEB/KMMU
• Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15B)
• Instrument Procedures Handbook (FAA-H-8083-16B)

This lesson advances your non-precision approach skills by removing the training wheels. No more vectors to final — you will fly full procedure approaches from published IAFs using raw navigation data. You will manage NAV1, NAV2, and bearing pointers to cross-check your position and build the situational awareness that separates competent instrument pilots from those merely following magenta lines.

The ground school portion expands your approach vocabulary with localizer backcourse, LDA, SDF, and radar approaches — plus critical operational concepts like the contact approach and what it means to be "established" on an approach.

Lesson Objectives

• Fly full LOC and VOR approaches without vectors using raw data and full procedure routing
• Improve proficiency with manual navigation, procedure turns, and outbound timing
• Cross-check navigation sources (NAV1, NAV2, bearing pointers) for situational awareness
• Reaffirm precision approach concepts via ILS 11 at KSBP

Background Briefing Topics

• Localizer backcourse approach — mirror image CDI, reverse sensing
• LDA approach (Localizer-type Directional Aid) — course not aligned with runway
• SDF approach (Simplified Directional Facility) — wider course, possible offset
• ASR and PAR radar approaches — surveillance vs. precision
• DME arc procedures — mandatory starting point from published IAF
• Contact approach — pilot-initiated, 1 SM visibility, clear of clouds
• Option approach — cleared for the option (touch-and-go, low approach, etc.)
• Low approach procedures
• Established on course/approach — what it means and ICAO tolerances

Flight Plan

Simulator Exercise Topics

• Review from Lesson 5: precision approaches, G1000 sequencing, TO/GA, SID
• VOR 24 KPOU — full procedure from SWF via IGN, no vectors
• ILS 11 KSBP — autopilot and manual LOC+GS intercept reinforcement
• ATC communication practice with recorded audio segments

Pilot Preparation

1. Read: Everything Explained — Localizer Backcourse, LDA, and SDF approach sections
2. Read: Instrument Procedures Handbook — DME arc procedures, contact approach regulations
3. Review: AIM 5-4-7 through 5-4-9 — Instrument approach procedures
4. Study: VOR 24 KPOU approach plate — brief the approach aloud using the standard format
5. Practice: Copy and read back IFR clearances from the sample clearance above

Localizer Backcourse Approach

A localizer backcourse approach uses the mirror image of the front course localizer signal to provide lateral guidance to the reciprocal runway. The localizer transmitter sits at the far end of the front course runway, so the backcourse signal radiates in the opposite direction — allowing an approach to the other end.

Reverse Sensing

The critical challenge with backcourse approaches is CDI reverse sensing. The CDI shows the opposite deflection compared to what you would expect on a front course approach — unless the aircraft has a backcourse selector switch (BC button on the HSI or CDI).

• Without backcourse switch: The needle is the airplane — fly the airplane over the needle. If the needle deflects left, fly left.
• With backcourse switch: CDI sensing is corrected and works normally. Always confirm the switch is active before relying on it.

Key Characteristics

• No glideslope is normally available on a backcourse approach — it is a non-precision approach with MDA
• On approach charts, crosshatched markings on the LEFT side of the arrowhead indicate the backcourse signal
• CDI sensitivity is the same as the front course localizer: 2.5° full-scale deflection

LDA Approach (Localizer-type Directional Aid)

An LDA provides comparable utility and accuracy to a standard localizer but is not part of an ILS system. The key difference: the LDA course is not aligned with the runway (AIM 1-1-10).

Technical Details

• Course width: 3° to 6° (compared to a standard localizer's 3° to 6°)
• Straight-in minimums: Published only when the angle between the LDA course and the runway does not exceed 30°
• Circling only: If the offset exceeds 30°, only circling minimums are published
• Glideslope possible: Some LDA approaches include a glideslope — in that case, the approach has DA(H) instead of MDA

SDF Approach (Simplified Directional Facility)

The SDF provides a final approach course similar to an ILS localizer but with reduced precision and possible offset (AIM 1-1-10).

Key Differences from Localizer

• Course may be offset up to 3° from the runway centerline
• Course width is fixed at either 6° or 12° (compared to the localizer's adjustable 3° to 6°)
• Antenna may be offset from the runway centerline
• Usable off-course indications are limited to 35° either side of the course centerline

SDF approaches are relatively rare today, but understanding them builds a complete picture of the localizer-family approach types you may encounter on the instrument knowledge test.

ASR and PAR Approaches

Radar approaches use ATC radar equipment to provide guidance to the pilot. Two types exist:

ASR — Airport Surveillance Radar

• Non-precision approach — ATC provides headings to guide the aircraft to the final approach course and recommended altitudes on each mile of the final approach
• The pilot is responsible for maintaining the recommended altitudes
• Minimums are typically higher than PAR
• Available at some civilian and military airports

PAR — Precision Approach Radar

• Precision approach — ATC provides heading corrections, glidepath elevation, and distance from the runway
• Controller issues continuous guidance: "slightly above glidepath... on glidepath... heading 180, on course"
• Approach minimums comparable to ILS (DA/DH, not MDA)
• Found mostly at military installations

DME Arc Procedures

A DME arc is a curved segment of an approach procedure that keeps the aircraft at a constant distance from a NAVAID while transitioning to the final approach course. DME arcs serve as feeder routes to the Initial Approach Fix (IAF).

Key Rule

If a feeder route to an IAF is part of an Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP), that feeder route is the mandatory starting point. You must begin the approach from a published IAF — you cannot simply intercept the final approach course at any point.

Flying the Arc

1. Set the OBS to the current radial from the NAVAID
2. Turn perpendicular to the radial (lead the turn slightly)
3. As the CDI centers on successive radials, twist the OBS to the next radial
4. Make small heading adjustments to maintain the published DME distance
5. Lead the turn onto the final approach course by approximately 5°

Contact Approach

A contact approach is an approach in which a pilot proceeds to the destination airport under IFR flight plan by visual reference to the surface. Critical rules:

• Must be requested by the pilot — ATC cannot initiate a contact approach (AIM 5-4-25)
• Reported ground visibility at the airport must be at least 1 statute mile
• The airport must have a published instrument approach procedure
• Pilot must remain clear of clouds at all times
• ATC will provide separation from other IFR traffic, but the pilot is responsible for terrain and obstruction clearance

Option Approach

When cleared for "the Option," a pilot may execute any of the following maneuvers at their discretion:

• Touch-and-go — land and depart without stopping
• Low approach — fly over the runway without landing
• Missed approach — execute the published missed approach procedure
• Stop-and-go — land, stop on the runway, then take off again
• Full stop landing — normal landing and taxi off

The option clearance is most commonly used during training to give the instructor flexibility. Request "cleared for the option" when you want to decide what to do based on how the approach looks as you get close.

Low Approach

A low approach is a go-around following a practice instrument or visual approach. The aircraft intentionally does not make contact with the runway.

• Commonly used for practice approaches when you want to fly the approach but not land
• In Class B, C, or D airspace, request the low approach before beginning the approach — not on short final
• ATC may assign a specific altitude for the go-around (e.g., "maintain runway heading, climb and maintain 2,000")

Established on Course/Approach

Being "established" on an approach or course segment means you are in a stable, fixed position on the route, segment, altitude, and heading required by the procedure.

ICAO Tolerances

Being established matters for several reasons: it determines when you can descend to the next segment altitude, when ATC considers you on the approach for separation purposes, and when certain protective airspace applies.

Review from Lesson 5

Before beginning today's exercises, review the key skills from Lesson 5:

• Precision approaches: ILS intercept, glideslope tracking, DA callouts
• G1000 approach sequencing: Loading, activating, and vectors-to-final
• TO/GA button: Missed approach execution and flight director guidance
• SID from KTEB: Departure procedure compliance, altitude restrictions

If any of these areas felt weak, discuss with your instructor before moving forward. Today builds on all of them.

Part 1: VOR 24 KPOU — Full Procedure Approach

Scenario

Fly the VOR 24 approach to Dutchess County Airport (KPOU) from Stewart International (SWF) via the IGN (Kingston) VOR. This is a full procedure approach — no vectors. You will navigate to the IAF, execute the procedure turn, and fly the approach using raw data.

Setup

• NAV1: Set to the approach VOR frequency. OBS set to the inbound course.
• NAV2: Set to a cross-check VOR for position awareness along the route
• GPS: Set to OBS/manual CDI mode — do not use GPS approach mode for this exercise
• Bearing pointers: Configure to show NAV1 and NAV2 for cross-reference

Key Execution Points

1. Route to IAF: Navigate from SWF to IGN using the published routing. Confirm station passage with CDI flip and/or DME
2. Procedure turn: Execute the published procedure turn. Begin outbound timing when abeam the fix (wings level on the outbound heading)
3. Outbound timing: Standard 1 minute outbound (Cat A). Adjust for wind — if headwind outbound, shorten; if tailwind outbound, lengthen
4. Inbound intercept: Roll onto the inbound course. CDI should be alive and centering. Confirm you are tracking inbound, not outbound
5. Final approach: Cross the FAF, start timing, begin descent to MDA. Use Dive & Drive technique from Lesson 4
6. Missed approach: At the MAP (by timing), if runway environment not in sight — execute missed approach

Part 2: ILS 11 KSBP — Precision Approach Reinforcement

Scenario

Fly the ILS Runway 11 approach at San Luis Obispo County Regional Airport (KSBP). This exercise reinforces the precision approach skills from Lesson 5 while introducing a different airport environment.

Focus Areas

• Autopilot intercept: Use APR mode on the G1000 for localizer and glideslope capture. Observe the annunciation sequence: LOC armed → LOC captured → GS armed → GS captured
• Manual intercept: Disconnect autopilot and hand-fly the ILS. Track localizer with heading corrections and glideslope with pitch/power adjustments
• G1000 annunciations: Pay attention to the mode annunciations on the PFD — understand what each mode means and when transitions occur
• DA callout: "100 above... minimums... runway in sight, landing" or "missed approach"

ATC Communication Practice

Listen to each audio segment below. Practice your initial call, readback, and corrections. These clips simulate a typical IFR clearance exchange for this lesson's route.

Key Takeaways

1. Backcourse = reverse sensing. The CDI deflects opposite to what you expect unless a backcourse selector switch is engaged. Without it, remember: the needle is the airplane — fly the airplane over the needle.
2. LDA is a localizer that does not point at the runway. Course width is 3-6°, comparable to a standard localizer. Straight-in minimums only if the offset is 30° or less; otherwise circling only. May include a glideslope (DA instead of MDA).
3. SDF has wider course width and possible offset. Fixed at 6° or 12° (not adjustable like a localizer). The antenna itself may be offset from the runway centerline. Less precise than a localizer.
4. Contact approach is always pilot-initiated. ATC cannot assign it. Requires at least 1 SM reported ground visibility, a published instrument approach at the airport, and the pilot must remain clear of clouds. Do not confuse with a visual approach (ATC can initiate, needs 3 SM, airport/traffic in sight).
5. DME arcs start at published IAFs. If a feeder route to the IAF is part of the approach procedure, it is the mandatory starting point. You cannot shortcut onto the final approach course — begin at the published fix.
6. "Established" has specific tolerances. For ILS and VOR: within half full-scale deflection. For NDB: within plus or minus 5°. Being established determines when you can descend to the next altitude and when ATC considers you on the approach.
7. Full procedure approaches test real navigation skill. Without vectors, you must manage your own routing to the IAF, execute the procedure turn, and intercept the inbound course — all using raw CDI, OBS, DME, and timing.

Oral Exam Self-Test

1. What is a localizer backcourse approach? How does CDI sensing differ from a front course approach?
2. If you do not have a backcourse selector switch, how do you fly a backcourse approach without chasing the needle?
3. What is an LDA approach and how does it differ from a standard localizer?
4. Under what condition does an LDA approach have straight-in minimums vs. circling only?
5. What are the course width options for an SDF approach?
6. What is the difference between an ASR approach and a PAR approach?
7. Who can initiate a contact approach — the pilot, ATC, or either? What are the visibility and cloud requirements?
8. What is the difference between a contact approach and a visual approach?
9. When you are "cleared for the option," what maneuvers are you authorized to perform?
10. What does it mean to be "established" on an ILS approach? What CDI tolerance does that require?
11. On a DME arc, if the feeder route to the IAF is part of the IAP, can you skip it and intercept the final approach course directly?
12. When should you request a low approach, and in what airspace classes must you coordinate this before starting the approach?

Pilot Preparation for Lesson 7

Lesson 7 covers STARs, VNAV, descent management, and GPS approaches.

Reading

1. Everything Explained: Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs) — complete section
2. Instrument Procedures Handbook: VNAV descent planning, altitude constraints, and GPS approach types (LNAV, LNAV/VNAV, LPV)
3. AIM 5-4-1: Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) procedures

Key Topics to Preview

• STAR structure: transition routes, common route, altitude/speed restrictions
• VNAV concepts: top of descent (TOD), vertical speed required, 3:1 rule
• Descent management: when to start down, power settings, speed control
• GPS approach types and minimums hierarchy: LPV > LNAV/VNAV > LNAV > LP
• WAAS vs. non-WAAS GPS capabilities
• RAIM prediction and GPS NOTAM checks

Approach Plate Study

Pull up a STAR and a GPS approach plate for an airport your instructor assigns. Brief both aloud using the standard approach briefing format. Pay attention to altitude restrictions marked as "at," "at or above," and "at or below."

Resources

• Instrument Rating Files — LOC and VOR approach plates, approach category reference
• Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15B)
• Instrument Procedures Handbook (FAA-H-8083-16B)

STARs are the bridge between the enroute structure and the approach environment. They give you a predictable, efficient path from high altitude down to the approach — and understanding how to fly them is essential for operating in busy terminal airspace. This lesson also introduces GPS approach types (LNAV, LNAV/VNAV, and LPV) and the vertical guidance differences that determine your minimums.

You will learn to use the G1000's VNAV capabilities to plan and execute descent profiles, meet crossing restrictions, and transition smoothly from cruise to approach.

Lesson Objectives

• Brief and fly a Standard Terminal Arrival Route (STAR) from enroute to the terminal environment
• Program VNAV descents in the G1000, including crossing altitudes and target fixes
• Understand crossing restrictions and how they are depicted on STAR charts
• Apply the 3:1 descent rule to calculate top of descent
• Differentiate between LNAV, LNAV/VNAV, and LPV GPS approach types
• Handle altitude amendments and speed restrictions from ATC during arrival
• Understand WAAS vertical guidance and how it enables lower minimums

Background Briefing Topics

• STAR defined — transition from enroute to approach, transition routes, RNAV 1 requirement
• VNAV on the G1000 — vertical deviation, profile view, crossing altitudes, target fixes
• Descent planning — top of descent, 3:1 rule (3 NM per 1,000 ft), speed and configuration
• GPS approach types — LNAV (lateral only, MDA), LNAV/VNAV (advisory glidepath, DA), LPV (precision-like, DA, lowest WAAS minimums)
• WAAS behavior — vertical guidance, LNAV+V vs. LNAV/VNAV differences
• Step-down fixes — mandatory altitude constraints, underscored/overscored notation
• False glideslopes — 3/6/9 degree lobes, always intercept from below at GSIA

Flight Plan

Simulator Exercise Topics

• VNAV descent to meet crossing restrictions on a STAR
• G1000 profile page for monitoring vertical path
• LPV, LNAV/VNAV, and LNAV-only approach execution
• Speed and descent changes from simulated ATC
• Altitude, speed, and lateral deviation monitoring

Pilot Preparation

1. Read: Instrument Procedures Handbook — Chapter 3: Arrivals (STARs), Chapter 4: GPS approach types
2. Read: AIM 5-4-1 (STARs) and 1-1-18 (WAAS)
3. Review: G1000 VNAV setup — reference the G1000 cockpit guide for VNAV waypoint altitude entry and profile view
4. Study: An RNAV (GPS) approach plate and identify LNAV, LNAV/VNAV, and LPV minimums lines
5. Practice: Calculate top of descent using the 3:1 rule for a descent from 9,000 to 3,000 ft

Standard Terminal Arrival Route (STAR)

A STAR is a published IFR procedure that provides a transition between the enroute structure and the approach environment. STARs reduce pilot/controller workload by replacing long, complex verbal clearances with a single named procedure. They define a lateral path — and often vertical constraints — from enroute fixes down to the initial approach environment (AIM 5-4-1).

Key STAR Concepts

• Transition routes connect common enroute fixes to the basic STAR. A single STAR may have multiple transitions arriving from different directions, all merging into a common arrival path.
• RNAV STARs require RNAV 1 (or RNP 1) capability. If your aircraft does not have RNAV 1 capability, you cannot accept an RNAV STAR.
• Pilot option: You can decline a STAR by filing "NO STARs" in the remarks section of your flight plan. ATC will then provide vectors or a different routing.
• Altitude and speed: STARs may include mandatory, minimum, maximum, or expected altitude constraints, as well as speed restrictions. "Descend via" clearance authorizes you to follow all published altitude and speed restrictions on the STAR.

VNAV on the G1000

The Garmin G1000's VNAV function calculates and displays a vertical descent path to arrive at a specified altitude over a specified waypoint. This is advisory VNAV — it provides guidance but does not couple to the autopilot in the same way as an ILS glideslope.

Setting Up VNAV

1. Select the target fix — the waypoint where you need to be at a specific altitude (e.g., a STAR crossing restriction)
2. Enter the crossing altitude — the altitude you must be at or above/below when crossing the fix
3. Set the vertical speed or angle — the G1000 calculates the required descent rate based on your groundspeed
4. Monitor the profile view — the MFD displays your vertical path, current position relative to the path, and distance to the target fix

VNAV Indicators

• Vertical deviation indicator (VDI): A magenta diamond on the PFD shows your position relative to the VNAV path — fly toward the diamond, just like a glideslope needle
• VNAV annunciation: "VNAV" appears in the PFD annunciator panel when active
• TOD marker: Top of Descent is displayed on the moving map and in the flight plan — this is where you should begin your descent to meet the crossing restriction
• Profile view on MFD: Shows your planned vertical path, current altitude, and the target fix with its altitude constraint

Descent Planning

Good descent planning ensures you arrive at each crossing restriction on altitude, on speed, and stabilized — not diving or floating through constraints.

The 3:1 Rule

The fundamental rule for descent planning: 3 NM of distance for every 1,000 feet of altitude to lose.

Top of Descent Calculation

To find your top of descent point:

1. Determine the altitude to lose (current altitude minus target altitude)
2. Divide by 1,000
3. Multiply by 3
4. That gives you the distance (in NM) before the fix where you should begin your descent

Example: Cruising at 9,000 ft, need to cross MUGZY at 3,000 ft. Altitude to lose: 6,000 ft. Top of descent: 6 x 3 = 18 NM before MUGZY.

Speed and Configuration

• Reduce power before descending — do not let the aircraft accelerate beyond the target speed
• ATC speed restrictions on STARs are mandatory. Common restrictions: 250 KIAS below 10,000 ft (14 CFR 91.117), plus STAR-specific constraints
• Plan ahead for configuration changes — if you need flaps or gear for speed reduction, plan when to deploy them

GPS Approach Types

RNAV (GPS) approach charts may offer multiple lines of minimums. Each line corresponds to a different level of navigation capability and provides different minimums. Understanding these is critical for knowing what you can fly and what altitude you can descend to.

LNAV — Lateral Navigation Only

LNAV provides lateral course guidance only — there is no vertical path. You fly to an MDA (just like a non-precision approach) and must see the runway environment before descending below MDA. Step-down fixes provide intermediate altitude floors during the approach.

LNAV/VNAV — Advisory Glidepath

LNAV/VNAV adds an advisory vertical glidepath to the lateral guidance. Minimums are expressed as a Decision Altitude (DA), meaning you fly the glidepath down to DA and execute a missed approach if you do not have the runway environment in sight. This glidepath can come from WAAS or from barometric VNAV (Baro-VNAV).

LPV — Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance

LPV is the most precise GPS approach type — it provides lateral and vertical guidance comparable to a Category I ILS. Minimums are expressed as DA and are typically the lowest available on an RNAV (GPS) chart. LPV requires WAAS — Wide Area Augmentation System.

WAAS and Vertical Guidance

WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System) is a network of ground stations and geostationary satellites that correct GPS signals for greater accuracy. WAAS enables LPV approaches and provides the vertical component for LNAV/VNAV approaches (AIM 1-1-18).

LNAV+V vs. LNAV/VNAV

These look similar but are fundamentally different:

• LNAV+V: An LNAV approach (lateral only, MDA minimums) where the WAAS receiver adds an advisory glide path indicator. The "+V" is pilot convenience only — it does not change the approach type or the minimums. You still fly to MDA, not DA.
• LNAV/VNAV: A published approach with both lateral and vertical guidance designed into the procedure. The glidepath is part of the approach design. Minimums are DA. This is a different line of minimums on the approach chart.

Step-Down Fixes

Step-down fixes are intermediate fixes along an approach that define mandatory altitude constraints. They exist to provide terrain and obstacle clearance between the FAF and the missed approach point.

Altitude Constraint Notation

Step-down fixes serve a critical traffic separation purpose. In busy terminal environments, ATC depends on aircraft meeting altitude constraints at specific fixes to maintain vertical separation. Missing a crossing restriction can compromise the safety of other traffic in the arrival sequence.

False Glideslopes

ILS glideslope transmitters produce the primary glideslope signal at approximately 3 degrees, but they also produce false glideslope lobes at steeper angles — typically at 6 degrees and 9 degrees. These false signals appear as valid glideslope indications but lead to dangerously steep descent paths.

Protection Against False Glideslopes

1. Always intercept the glideslope from below — fly at or below the published Glide Slope Intercept Altitude (GSIA) until the glideslope needle centers from above
2. Verify your descent rate. A 3-degree glideslope at 90 knots requires approximately 480 FPM. If your descent rate is dramatically higher (1,000+ FPM), you may be on a false lobe.
3. Cross-check altitude at the FAF. The approach plate publishes the expected altitude at the FAF for the glideslope. If you are significantly higher, you intercepted a false glideslope.

Setup

Start at KAVP (Wilkes-Barre/Scranton). Reposition to 10,000 feet, approximately 20 miles from MUGZY on the LVZ STAR inbound to Morristown (KMMU). This positions you for a realistic arrival scenario — descending through a STAR with crossing restrictions, transitioning to an approach at MMU.

Phase 1: VNAV Descent to Crossing Restriction

Meet MUGZY Crossing Restriction

1. Review the STAR chart: Identify the crossing restriction at MUGZY — note whether it is "at or above," "at or below," or "at" (mandatory)
2. Program VNAV: On the G1000, enter the crossing altitude for MUGZY. The system will calculate your top of descent and required vertical speed.
3. Monitor the profile page: Switch the MFD to the VNAV profile view. Verify the TOD point and the planned descent path.
4. Begin descent at TOD: When the VNAV annunciator indicates top of descent, reduce power and begin descent to match the VNAV path.
5. Track the VDI: Keep the magenta diamond centered on the PFD. Adjust vertical speed as needed — wind will shift the required descent rate.

Monitoring During Descent

• Altitude: Cross-check between the VNAV path and the altimeter. Do not bust the crossing altitude.
• Speed: Monitor airspeed trends. If speed is building, reduce power before it becomes a problem. Remember 250 KIAS below 10,000.
• Lateral deviation: Stay on the STAR lateral path. The CDI should remain centered in GPS mode.

Phase 2: GPS Approach Comparison

Fly three approaches to KMMU to experience the difference between GPS approach types firsthand. After each approach, execute the missed approach and re-sequence for the next attempt.

Approach 1: LPV

1. Load the RNAV (GPS) approach and verify the GPS annunciates "LPV"
2. Note the DA on the LPV minimums line — this will be the lowest
3. Fly the approach using the coupled glidepath. The CDI provides both lateral and vertical guidance — fly it like an ILS.
4. At DA, execute a missed approach

Approach 2: LNAV/VNAV

1. On the second attempt, configure the GPS for LNAV/VNAV if the approach supports it
2. Note the DA on the LNAV/VNAV line — higher than LPV
3. The glidepath is advisory (if Baro-VNAV) or WAAS-derived. Fly the diamond down to DA.
4. At DA, execute a missed approach

Approach 3: LNAV Only

1. On the third attempt, fly LNAV only — lateral guidance with no vertical path
2. Note the MDA on the LNAV line — highest of the three
3. Use step-down fix altitudes to manage your descent. Do not descend below each step-down altitude until passing the fix.
4. At the MAP (missed approach point), if the runway is not in sight, execute a missed approach

Phase 3: ATC Amendments

During the STAR and approach segments, your instructor will issue simulated ATC amendments to test your ability to handle real-world disruptions:

• Speed restriction: "N12345, reduce speed to 170 knots." — Comply, adjust power and pitch, and re-evaluate your descent profile.
• Altitude change: "N12345, descend and maintain 4,000." — This overrides STAR altitudes below 4,000. Reprogram VNAV or adjust manually.
• Reroute: "N12345, proceed direct MUGZY, cross MUGZY at 6,000." — Enter direct-to, set new crossing altitude, recalculate descent.
• Hold for sequencing: "N12345, hold at MUGZY as published, expect further clearance in 10 minutes." — Enter the hold, manage fuel awareness.

The goal is flexibility. Real-world arrivals rarely go exactly as filed. The pilot who plans for the STAR but adapts smoothly to amendments is the one who stays ahead of the airplane.

ATC Audio

Listen to the following ATC communications for this lesson. Practice reading back each clearance accurately before listening to the correct readback.

Key Takeaways

1. STARs bridge enroute and approach. They reduce workload by replacing complex verbal clearances with a single published procedure. Transition routes connect enroute fixes to the basic STAR. You can decline with "NO STARs" in your flight plan remarks.
2. VNAV is your descent planning tool. On the G1000, program crossing altitudes and target fixes. The VDI diamond shows your position relative to the planned path. Monitor TOD, vertical speed, and the profile view on the MFD.
3. Three GPS approach types, three levels of guidance. LNAV = lateral only (MDA). LNAV/VNAV = lateral + advisory vertical (DA). LPV = precision-like lateral and vertical (DA, lowest minimums). The approach your GPS annunciates determines which minimums line you use.
4. Step-down fixes are mandatory altitude floors. On LNAV approaches, do not descend below a step-down altitude until passing the fix. Overline = at or below. Underline = at or above. Both = mandatory.
5. The 3:1 rule makes descent math simple. Three nautical miles for every 1,000 feet of altitude to lose. At 120 knots groundspeed, that works out to roughly 500 FPM. Start your descent at the calculated TOD to arrive on altitude without rushing.
6. Crossing restrictions are not optional. "Descend via" means comply with all published lateral and vertical restrictions on the STAR. Missing a crossing restriction can compromise separation with other traffic in the arrival sequence.
7. WAAS enables lower minimums. WAAS provides the vertical guidance for LPV and LNAV/VNAV approaches. Do not confuse LNAV+V (advisory, MDA minimums) with LNAV/VNAV (published glidepath, DA minimums). The "+V" convenience does not change your minimums.

Oral Exam Self-Test

1. What is a STAR, and what purpose does it serve in the IFR system?
2. How do transition routes relate to the basic STAR? Can a single STAR have multiple transitions?
3. What does "descend via" authorize you to do? How does it differ from "descend and maintain"?
4. Explain the 3:1 descent rule. How far from a fix should you begin descent if you need to lose 5,000 feet?
5. What are the three GPS approach types on an RNAV (GPS) chart? For each, state whether minimums are MDA or DA and what equipment is required.
6. What is the difference between LNAV+V and LNAV/VNAV? Which minimums line applies to each?
7. How do step-down fix altitude constraints appear on an approach chart? What do the overline and underline notations mean?
8. What is a false glideslope? At what angles do false lobes typically occur, and how do you avoid capturing one?
9. What is GSIA and why is it important for glideslope intercept?
10. On a G1000, what does the VNAV vertical deviation indicator (VDI) look like and how do you interpret it?
11. Can you decline a STAR? If so, how?
12. What is the mandatory speed restriction below 10,000 feet MSL, and where is it found in the regulations?

Pilot Preparation for Lesson 8

Lesson 8 covers lost communications, IFR diversions, and 14 CFR 91.185 — what to do when you lose radio contact with ATC while operating under IFR.

Reading

1. 14 CFR 91.185: IFR operations — two-way radio communications failure. Read the regulation in full — it is short but dense.
2. AIM 6-4-1: Two-way radio communications failure procedures
3. Instrument Flying Handbook: Lost communications chapter
4. Everything Explained: Lost communications section

Key Topics to Preview

• The AVE-F MEA rule for altitude selection during lost comms
• Route: continue on the route ATC last assigned, then the route filed, then as expected
• When to begin an approach at the destination
• Transponder code 7600
• Diversion decision-making — weather, fuel, alternates
• How ATC handles a NORDO aircraft

Resources

• Instrument Rating Files — STAR charts, VNAV descent planning worksheets, GPS approach comparison
• Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15B)
• Instrument Procedures Handbook (FAA-H-8083-16B)
• 14 CFR 91.185 — Lost Communications

Lost communications is one of the most heavily tested topics on the instrument oral exam — and for good reason. When you lose your radio in IMC, you become a pilot that ATC can see on radar but cannot talk to. Every decision you make from that point must follow a precise regulatory framework so the system can predict your behavior and keep everyone safe.

This lesson pairs lost comms theory with enroute diversion skills — the ability to accept ATC reroutes, reprogram the G1000 in flight, and navigate confidently when the plan changes mid-route.

Lesson Objectives

• Practice IFR reroutes and enroute diversions
• Handle lost communication scenarios using 14 CFR 91.185
• Re-enter the ATC system after deviation
• Hold with an Expect Further Clearance (EFC) time
• Apply the AVE-F decision framework for route selection during lost comms
• Determine the correct altitude for each segment using the highest-of rule
• Distinguish squawk codes: 7600 (lost comms), 7500 (hijack), 7700 (emergency)

Background Briefing Topics

• Lost Communications — 14 CFR 91.185 decision tree
• AVE-F route logic: Assigned, Vectored, Expected, Filed
• Altitude rule: highest of MEA, expected, or assigned for each segment
• EFC timing: when to leave the hold and begin the approach
• Squawk 7600 vs. 7500 vs. 7700
• IFR fuel minimums: destination + alternate + 45 minutes
• Alternate requirements: the 1-2-3 rule
• NW KRAFT preflight weather briefing review
• IFR diversion procedures: Direct-To, flight plan editing, OBS mode on G1000

Flight Plan

Simulator Exercise Topics

• IFR flight from KMMU to KSYR with ATC reroute simulation
• Hold at SAX with EFC and 15-knot crosswind
• Simulated lost comms event: follow the 91.185 decision tree
• Direct-To vs. full reroute via edited flight plan on G1000
• ATC communication practice with recorded audio

Pilot Preparation

1. Read: 14 CFR 91.185 — IFR Operations: Two-way Radio Communications Failure (read the full regulation, not a summary)
2. Read: AIM 6-4-1 — Two-Way Radio Communications Failure
3. Read: Everything Explained — Lost Communications section
4. Review: 14 CFR 91.167 — Fuel requirements for IFR flight
5. Review: 14 CFR 91.169 — IFR flight plan: information required (alternate requirements)
6. Practice: Write out the AVE-F decision tree from memory — you will be asked to do this on the oral exam

Lost Communications — 14 CFR 91.185

Two-way radio communications failure in IFR conditions is a situation every instrument pilot must be prepared to handle. The regulation provides a structured decision tree so both you and ATC can predict each other's actions.

Step 1: Squawk 7600

Immediately set your transponder to 7600. This tells ATC you have lost communications. They will begin protecting airspace for you based on what they expect you to do under 91.185.

Step 2: VFR or IFR Conditions?

If the failure occurs in VFR conditions, or if VFR conditions are encountered after the failure, continue the flight under VFR and land as soon as practicable. The regulation is clear — if you can see, get on the ground. The lost comms procedures below apply only when you are in IMC and must remain IFR.

Step 3: Route — AVE-F

If you must continue IFR, fly the route in the following priority order (14 CFR 91.185(c)(1)):

Step 4: Altitude — Highest Of

For each route segment, fly at the highest of the following three altitudes (14 CFR 91.185(c)(2)):

This rule protects you from terrain and from conflicting traffic. ATC uses the same rule to predict your altitude and clear other aircraft out of your way.

Step 5: When to Begin the Approach

At your destination, leave the clearance limit (or holding fix) and begin the approach at the later of:

• EFC time: If you received an Expect Further Clearance time, leave the fix at the EFC time
• Expected arrival time: If no EFC was given, leave at the time you would have expected to arrive based on your filed or amended Estimated Time Enroute (ETE)

IFR Fuel Minimums

No person may operate a civil aircraft in IFR conditions unless it carries enough fuel to (14 CFR 91.167):

1. Complete the flight to the first airport of intended landing
2. Fly from that airport to the alternate airport (if an alternate is required)
3. Fly for 45 minutes at normal cruising speed after that

This is a planning requirement. You must have this fuel at the time of departure. If conditions change enroute and you no longer meet this requirement, you need to take action — divert or declare minimum fuel.

Alternate Airport Requirements — The 1-2-3 Rule

An alternate airport must be listed on your IFR flight plan unless the weather at the destination meets the 1-2-3 criteria (14 CFR 91.169(b)):

If the destination forecast does not meet all three criteria, you must file an alternate. The alternate itself must meet separate weather minimums: for a precision approach, 600-2 (600 ft ceiling, 2 SM visibility); for a non-precision approach, 800-2.

NW KRAFT — Preflight Weather Briefing

Before every IFR flight, systematically gather the information that affects your go/no-go decision:

IFR Diversion Procedures on the G1000

When ATC issues a reroute or you need to divert, you have three primary methods on the G1000:

Direct-To

The fastest method. Press the Direct-To key, enter the waypoint identifier, and activate. This creates a magenta course line directly to the fix. Use this when ATC says "proceed direct" to a single fix.

Editing the Flight Plan Enroute

For complex reroutes (e.g., "direct SAX, V252, GDM, as filed"), you need to edit your active flight plan:

1. Open the FPL page
2. Cursor to the point where the new route begins
3. Insert new waypoints and airways
4. Delete waypoints that are no longer part of the route
5. Activate the modified flight plan

Practice this on the ground first. Editing a flight plan in turbulence at 8,000 feet requires familiarity with the interface.

OBS Mode

OBS (Omni-Bearing Selector) mode suspends automatic waypoint sequencing and allows you to set a specific course to or from the current waypoint. Useful when ATC assigns a specific heading to intercept a radial or when holding on a specific course.

EFC Logic — Expect Further Clearance

When ATC places you in a hold, they issue an Expect Further Clearance (EFC) time. This time serves two critical purposes:

1. Normal operations: It tells you approximately how long the delay will be. ATC will issue new clearance before the EFC time.
2. Lost comms: If you lose communications while holding, the EFC time tells you when to leave the hold and proceed to your destination. This is the mechanism that allows ATC to predict your behavior.

Transponder Emergency Codes

Three transponder codes are reserved for emergencies. Know them cold:

Flight Overview

Today's simulator session flies from Morristown Municipal (KMMU) to Syracuse Hancock International (KSYR). During the flight, you will receive an ATC reroute, hold at Sparta VOR (SAX) with a crosswind, and then experience a simulated communications failure requiring you to apply the full 14 CFR 91.185 decision tree.

Phase 1: Departure & ATC Reroute

1. Depart KMMU IFR: Copy your clearance, brief the departure procedure, and depart
2. Receive ATC reroute: After departure, New York Center issues: "N12345, reroute — proceed direct Sparta, Victor 252 to Gardner, then as filed."
3. Read back: Confirm the full reroute clearance
4. Reprogram the G1000: Use Direct-To for SAX, then edit the flight plan to add V252 and GDM. This is your primary avionics management task — practice it until it becomes routine

Phase 2: Hold at SAX with EFC

Upon reaching the Sparta VOR, ATC places you in a hold:

"N12345, hold northwest of Sparta on the 330 radial, right turns, expect further clearance at 1545 Zulu."

1. Determine entry: Based on your inbound heading, select the correct hold entry (direct, teardrop, or parallel)
2. Set up the hold: Program the holding pattern in the G1000 or use OBS mode to track the inbound course
3. Wind correction: With a 15-knot crosswind, adjust your outbound heading to compensate. On the outbound leg, turn into the wind. On the inbound leg, let the correction bring you back to the holding course
4. Note the EFC time: Write it down. In the event of lost comms, this is when you leave the hold
5. Timing: Standard 1-minute outbound legs above 14,000 ft (or 1.5 minutes). Adjust outbound timing to achieve 1-minute inbound legs

Phase 3: Lost Communications Simulation

While holding at SAX, your instructor will simulate a communications failure. From this point forward, apply the 91.185 decision tree:

Immediate Actions

1. Squawk 7600
2. Attempt communication on all available frequencies — last assigned, 121.5, FSS
3. Try your backup radio (COM 2)
4. Check headset connections, audio panel settings, and circuit breakers

Decision Tree

1. VFR or IFR? — The scenario is IMC, so continue IFR
2. Route (AVE-F): You were assigned "direct SAX, V252, GDM, then as filed." This is your last assigned route — follow it
3. Altitude: For each segment, fly the highest of MEA, expected altitude, or assigned altitude
4. When to leave the hold: You received an EFC of 1545Z — depart SAX at 1545Z and proceed on your route
5. When to begin the approach at KSYR: Arrive and begin the approach. If the clearance limit is the airport (which it is), no additional holding is required at the destination

Phase 4: G1000 Flight Plan Management

Practice both methods of handling a reroute:

Method 1: Direct-To

• Press Direct-To, enter the fix identifier, and activate
• Best for simple "proceed direct" clearances to a single fix
• Limitation: does not modify the rest of your flight plan — after the Direct-To fix, the G1000 sequences to the next waypoint in your original flight plan

Method 2: Full Reroute via Flight Plan Edit

• Open FPL, insert new waypoints and airways, delete old ones
• Use for complex reroutes with multiple segments
• Verify the route looks correct on the MFD map before activating
• This is slower but ensures your G1000 navigation matches your actual clearance for the entire route

OBS Mode

• Press the OBS key to suspend waypoint sequencing
• Set the desired course to/from the active waypoint
• Useful for holding, tracking a specific radial, or when ATC assigns "maintain present heading, intercept the 180 radial of SAX"

ATC Communication Audio

Listen to and practice with these recorded ATC communications for this lesson:

• Pre-flight ATIS / Briefing
• Pilot Initial Call
• ATC Response
• ATC Clearance (Reroute)
• Pilot Readback
• ATC Confirmation

Key Takeaways

1. Lost comms procedure starts with 7600. Squawk 7600 immediately. Then attempt all available frequencies — last assigned, 121.5, COM 2, FSS. Check headset, audio panel, and circuit breakers before committing to nordo operations.
2. AVE-F determines your route. Assigned, Vectored, Expected, Filed — in priority order. Fly the highest-priority route that applies. This is not a sequential checklist; it is a hierarchy.
3. Altitude rule: fly the highest of three. For each segment, fly the highest of the Minimum Enroute Altitude, the altitude you were told to expect, and the altitude you were last assigned. This can change with each route segment.
4. Squawk 7600 is lost comms, not an emergency. 7500 is hijack. 7700 is general emergency. Never cycle through 7500 when changing codes — ATC radar triggers immediately.
5. EFC time governs when you leave the hold. If you received an Expect Further Clearance time and lose comms, depart the holding fix at the EFC time. If no EFC was given, proceed based on your expected arrival time.
6. Diversions require G1000 proficiency. Direct-To handles simple reroutes. Full flight plan edits handle complex ones. OBS mode suspends waypoint sequencing for holding or radial intercepts. Practice all three on the ground.
7. IFR fuel planning is non-negotiable. Destination + alternate + 45 minutes at normal cruise. Know the 1-2-3 rule for when you need an alternate, and the 600-2 / 800-2 minimums for alternate weather.

Oral Exam Self-Test

Lost communications is one of the most heavily tested topics on the instrument oral exam. You should be able to answer every one of these questions from memory.

1. What regulation governs two-way radio communications failure during IFR flight? What does it require?
2. What is the first thing you do when you realize you have lost communications in IMC?
3. If you lose communications in VFR conditions, what does the regulation require?
4. Explain AVE-F. What does each letter stand for, and how do you apply the hierarchy?
5. You were assigned 6,000, told to expect 8,000, and the MEA on your current segment is 5,000. You lose comms. What altitude do you fly? What if the MEA on the next segment is 10,000?
6. You are being radar vectored to intercept V16 when you lose comms. What route do you fly?
7. You are holding at a fix with an EFC of 1530Z when you lose comms at 1515Z. When do you leave the fix?
8. Your clearance limit is the destination airport. You arrive and the weather is IMC. Do you hold or begin the approach?
9. What are the three emergency transponder codes? What does each mean?
10. What is the IFR fuel requirement under 14 CFR 91.167? State the complete formula.
11. What is the 1-2-3 rule? When does it apply, and what are the alternate airport weather minimums for precision and non-precision approaches?
12. You filed a route of KMMU direct SAX V252 GDM direct KSYR. After departure, ATC clears you "direct SAX, V252, GDM, then as filed." Enroute, ATC says "expect direct KSYR after GDM." You lose comms after GDM. What route do you fly — direct KSYR or as filed?

Pilot Preparation for Lesson 9

Lesson 9 covers emergencies, system failures, and partial panel flying.

Reading

1. Everything Explained: Emergency Procedures section (complete)
2. Instrument Flying Handbook: Chapter on unusual attitudes, partial panel, and emergency operations
3. 14 CFR 91.3: Responsibility and authority of the pilot in command (emergency authority)
4. 14 CFR 91.185: Review once more — emergencies and lost comms often overlap
5. AIM 6-3-1 through 6-3-5: Distress and urgency procedures

Key Topics to Preview

• Vacuum system failure — recognizing the symptoms, which instruments are affected
• Partial panel flying — controlling the aircraft with limited instruments
• Unusual attitude recovery under the hood
• Electrical failure — load shedding, battery endurance, alternator checks
• Pitot-static system failures — blocked pitot tube, blocked static port
• Engine failure in IMC — immediate actions, nearest suitable airport
• Declaring an emergency — when and how, and why you should not hesitate

Resources

• Instrument Rating Files — Lost communications flowchart, diversion planning reference, alternate airport data
• Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15B)
• 14 CFR 91.185 — Full Regulation Text

System failures in IMC are among the most dangerous situations an instrument pilot can face. When your primary instruments fail, you must immediately recognize what has happened, identify which instruments are still reliable, and transition to partial panel flying — all while maintaining aircraft control and navigating to safety.

This lesson covers the full spectrum of instrument and system failures: pitot-static malfunctions, gyroscopic instrument failures, electrical system emergencies, and the G1000 reversionary mode that can save the day when your PFD fails. These topics are heavily tested on the IFR oral exam and checkride.

Lesson Objectives

• Recognize pitot-static system failures and predict their effects on ASI, altimeter, and VSI
• Understand gyroscopic instrument failures: vacuum pump loss and electrical failure
• Fly partial panel using backup instruments — standby attitude indicator and magnetic compass
• Operate the G1000 in reversionary mode when the PFD fails
• Recover from unusual attitudes using partial panel techniques
• Understand electrical failure hierarchy: essential bus, load shedding, and alternator failure
• Know emergency transponder codes: 7700, 7600, 7500
• Perform the generic instrument taxi check from memory

Background Briefing Topics

• Pitot-static system failures — static port blockage, pitot tube blockage, alternate static source effects
• Gyroscopic instrument failures — vacuum pump failure (AI, HI), electrical failure (turn coordinator)
• Unusual attitude recognition and recovery procedures
• G1000 reversionary mode — PFD failure, MFD split screen operations
• Electrical failure hierarchy — essential bus, load shedding, alternator failure procedures
• Emergency transponder codes — 7700, 7600, 7500
• Generic instrument taxi check — ASI, TC, AI, HI, altimeter, VSI, compass

Simulator Exercise Topics

• Simulate PFD failure and use MFD reversionary mode
• Fly with failed ADC using compass and backup attitude indicator
• Non-GPS approach scenario (LOC or VOR) with degraded systems
• Unusual attitude recovery under the hood
• ATC communications during emergency scenarios

Flight Plan

Pilot Preparation

1. Read: Instrument Flying Handbook — Chapters on pitot-static systems and gyroscopic instruments
2. Read: G1000 Pilot's Guide — Reversionary mode and system annunciations
3. Review: Emergency procedures checklist for your training aircraft
4. Practice: Identify which instruments are affected by each type of failure

Pitot-Static System Failures

The pitot-static system provides ram air pressure and static (ambient) air pressure to three instruments: the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator. Understanding what happens when components of this system fail is critical for instrument pilots and one of the most tested topics on the oral exam.

Static Port Blockage

When the static port becomes blocked (ice, debris, insects), the instruments react as follows:

• Altimeter: Freezes at the altitude where the blockage occurred — will not change regardless of actual altitude changes
• VSI: Zeros out and remains at zero — no indication of climb or descent
• ASI: Becomes unreliable at altitudes different from where the blockage occurred. If you climb above the blockage altitude, the ASI reads lower than actual (trapped static pressure is higher than ambient). If you descend below the blockage altitude, the ASI reads higher than actual (trapped static pressure is lower than ambient).

Pitot Tube Blockage

The pitot tube supplies ram air pressure to the airspeed indicator only. The altimeter and VSI are unaffected by pitot blockage.

• Ram air inlet blocked, drain hole open: ASI drops to zero as ram air pressure bleeds out through the drain hole
• Ram air inlet AND drain hole blocked: ASI freezes at current indication. If you climb, ASI reads higher than actual (trapped ram air pressure stays constant while static pressure decreases). If you descend, ASI reads lower than actual. The ASI effectively becomes an altimeter — reads like an altimeter, increasing with altitude gain.

Alternate Static Source

Most aircraft have an alternate static source that draws air from inside the cockpit. Because cockpit pressure is slightly lower than outside ambient pressure (due to aerodynamic effects), using the alternate static source produces predictable errors:

• ASI: Reads slightly faster than actual (lower static pressure increases the differential)
• Altimeter: Reads slightly higher than actual altitude
• VSI: Shows a momentary indication of a climb when first activated, then settles

Gyroscopic Instrument Failures

Gyroscopic instruments in most training aircraft are powered by two different sources, which means different failures affect different instruments:

Vacuum Pump Failure

When the vacuum pump fails, both the AI and HI become unreliable. This is insidious because the instruments do not immediately show obvious errors — they slowly drift as the gyros spin down. Watch for:

• Low suction gauge reading (below the green arc)
• AI and HI slowly disagreeing with other instruments
• AI showing a slight bank when the turn coordinator shows wings level

Electrical Failure Effects on Instruments

An electrical failure takes out the turn coordinator. In this case, you still have the vacuum-driven AI and HI — but you lose the ability to cross-check turn rate. The inclinometer (ball) is mechanical and continues to function.

Partial Panel Flying Techniques

When flying partial panel (no AI, no HI), use the remaining instruments:

• Turn coordinator: Use for bank control — wings level = straight flight
• Magnetic compass: Use for heading reference (with acceleration/turning errors)
• Airspeed indicator: Use for pitch reference — if airspeed is stable, pitch is stable
• Altimeter and VSI: Cross-check for pitch confirmation

Unusual Attitudes

An unusual attitude is any aircraft attitude not normally required for instrument flight. Recognition and recovery must be immediate:

Nose-High Unusual Attitude

Indications: Decreasing airspeed, increasing altitude, positive VSI.

Recovery:

1. Add power (prevent stall)
2. Lower the nose (reduce pitch attitude)
3. Level the wings (using turn coordinator if partial panel)

Nose-Low Unusual Attitude

Indications: Increasing airspeed, decreasing altitude, negative VSI.

Recovery:

1. Reduce power (prevent overspeed)
2. Level the wings (stop the descent from increasing)
3. Raise the nose (gently — do not pull excessive G-loads)

G1000 Reversionary Mode

The Garmin G1000 integrated flight deck has a built-in backup: reversionary mode. If the PFD (Primary Flight Display) fails, the MFD (Multi-Function Display) can display PFD data.

Automatic Reversion

If the G1000 detects a PFD failure, the MFD automatically enters reversionary mode, displaying critical flight instruments on the MFD screen. The display splits to show:

• Attitude indicator, airspeed tape, altitude tape, and HSI on the MFD
• Engine instruments compressed to the top of the display
• Map display reduced or removed

Manual Reversion

The pilot can also trigger reversionary mode manually by pressing the red DISPLAY BACKUP button between the two screens. This is useful if the PFD is displaying erratic information but has not fully failed.

Electrical Failure Hierarchy

Understanding the aircraft electrical system helps you manage failures systematically:

Alternator Failure

If the alternator fails, the battery becomes the sole power source. You have limited time (typically 30-60 minutes depending on electrical load) before the battery is depleted.

1. Shed non-essential loads: Turn off autopilot, unnecessary lighting, second radio, second nav source
2. Advise ATC: Declare the situation, request priority handling or vectors to the nearest suitable airport
3. Plan for total electrical failure: Brief the non-GPS approach at your destination, note compass headings

Essential Bus

Most aircraft have an essential bus (or emergency bus) that receives power from the battery even if the main bus fails. Critical instruments on the essential bus typically include:

• One COM radio
• One NAV radio
• Transponder
• Engine instruments
• Basic flight instruments

Load Shedding Priority

When managing an electrical emergency, shed loads in this general order (least critical first):

1. Cabin lighting, entertainment
2. Autopilot
3. Second COM/NAV radio
4. GPS (if you have a VOR/LOC approach available)
5. Transponder (keep as long as possible for radar identification)

Emergency Transponder Codes

Three transponder codes are reserved for emergency situations. Know these cold:

Generic Instrument Taxi Check

Before every IFR flight, perform this systematic check of all flight instruments during taxi. This is your last chance to catch a failed instrument on the ground:

ATC Audio Practice

Listen to each ATC audio clip in sequence. Practice your readback before listening to the correct version:

1. Briefing:
2. Pilot Initial Call:
3. ATC Response:
4. ATC Clearance:
5. Pilot Readback:
6. ATC Clearance (Repeat):
7. Pilot Readback 2:
8. ATC Final Confirmation:

Scenario 1: PFD Failure — MFD Reversionary Mode

During cruise at 5,000 ft en route to Hartford, the instructor will simulate a PFD failure. The MFD should automatically enter reversionary mode.

Your Actions

1. Recognize the failure: PFD screen goes blank or displays error flags
2. Confirm reversionary mode: Verify the MFD is displaying PFD flight data (attitude, airspeed, altitude, HSI)
3. If automatic reversion did not activate: Press the red DISPLAY BACKUP button
4. Adjust your scan: Your primary instruments are now on the right screen — adapt your cross-check
5. Advise ATC: Report the equipment failure and request priority handling if needed
6. Continue the flight: Maintain heading, altitude, and airspeed using the MFD display

Scenario 2: ADC Failure — Compass and Backup Attitude

After the PFD is restored, the instructor will fail the Air Data Computer (ADC). This removes computed airspeed, altitude, and vertical speed from the G1000 displays. You must transition to backup instruments.

Available Instruments

• Standby attitude indicator: Your primary pitch and bank reference
• Magnetic compass: Your only heading reference (with acceleration and turning errors)
• Standby airspeed indicator: Mechanical ASI connected to pitot-static system
• Standby altimeter: Mechanical altimeter

Flying Technique

1. Set a known power setting for the desired airspeed (e.g., 2300 RPM for 100 KIAS in cruise)
2. Use the standby attitude indicator for pitch and bank
3. Make small heading corrections — the magnetic compass has significant errors during turns and acceleration
4. For heading changes: use timed turns with the clock and turn coordinator (standard rate = 3°/second)

Scenario 3: Non-GPS Approach

With degraded navigation capability, you will fly a LOC or VOR approach at the destination airport without GPS guidance. This simulates a real-world scenario where GPS has been lost or is unreliable.

Approach Execution

1. Brief the approach: Identify the final approach course, FAF, MDA, missed approach point, and missed approach procedure
2. Tune and identify the navaid: Verify the Morse code identifier — do not rely on the frequency alone
3. Fly the procedure turn or course reversal: Establish on the final approach course inbound
4. Time from the FAF: Start timing at the FAF — your backup missed approach point is time-based
5. Descend to MDA: Use Dive & Drive — descend promptly after the FAF
6. Execute missed approach if needed: At the MAP without the runway environment in sight, go missed

Performance Standards

Note that partial panel tolerances are wider than normal instrument flight. The ACS recognizes that flying without primary instruments is significantly more challenging. However, you must still maintain positive aircraft control at all times.

Key Takeaways

1. Static port blockage freezes altimeter and zeros VSI. The ASI becomes unreliable at altitudes different from where the blockage occurred — it effectively acts as an altimeter.
2. Pitot tube blockage (both ports) makes the ASI act like an altimeter. ASI increases with altitude gain, decreases with altitude loss. Only ASI is affected — altimeter and VSI remain accurate.
3. Alternate static source reads fast and high. ASI reads slightly faster, altimeter reads slightly higher, VSI shows momentary climb — all because cockpit static pressure is lower than ambient.
4. Vacuum pump failure kills the AI and HI. The failure is insidious — instruments drift slowly. Cross-check the turn coordinator (electrically powered) against the AI. If they disagree, trust the turn coordinator.
5. Partial panel = turn coordinator + compass + airspeed. Use timed turns for heading changes (standard rate = 3°/sec). Remember UNOS for compass turning errors.
6. G1000 reversionary mode is your backup. PFD fails, MFD displays flight instruments. Know the DISPLAY BACKUP button location. Practice reading the compressed display.
7. Emergency squawk codes: 7700, 7600, 7500. Emergency, lost comms, hijack. Never accidentally squawk 7500.

Oral Exam Self-Test

1. What three instruments are connected to the pitot-static system? Which use static pressure only, and which use both pitot and static?
2. If the static port becomes blocked, what happens to the altimeter, VSI, and ASI?
3. If the pitot tube is completely blocked (ram air inlet and drain hole), how does the ASI behave during a climb? During a descent?
4. What are the effects of using the alternate static source on ASI, altimeter, and VSI?
5. Which gyroscopic instruments are vacuum-powered? Which are electrically powered?
6. How do you recognize a vacuum pump failure? Why is it considered the most dangerous instrument failure?
7. Describe the recovery procedure for a nose-high unusual attitude. Why is adding power the first step?
8. Describe the recovery procedure for a nose-low unusual attitude. Why do you level the wings before raising the nose?
9. What is G1000 reversionary mode? How is it activated automatically? Manually?
10. What is the order of load shedding during an electrical failure? What stays on the essential bus?
11. What do transponder codes 7700, 7600, and 7500 mean? When do you use each?
12. Walk through the instrument taxi check — what should each instrument show before takeoff?

Pilot Preparation for Lesson 10

Lesson 10 is your checkride preparation and comprehensive IFR oral exam review — covering all material from Lessons 1 through 9 (KTTN → KTAN).

Preparation

1. Review all lesson notes: Go through key takeaways from Lessons 1-9
2. Practice oral exam questions: Answer every oral exam question from every lesson review page — out loud, as if speaking to an examiner
3. Review ACS: Read the Instrument Rating ACS (FAA-S-8081-66C) — areas of operation, tasks, and standards
4. Weather review: Be prepared to discuss weather minimums, alternate requirements, and go/no-go decision-making
5. Approach plates: Be ready to brief any approach type — ILS, LOC, VOR, RNAV/GPS, LPV

Key Topics to Master

• IFR flight planning: weather, NOTAMs, fuel requirements, alternate airports
• Airspace, ATC clearances, and lost communications procedures
• All approach types: precision, non-precision, RNAV/GPS
• Holding patterns: entries, timing, wind correction
• System failures: pitot-static, gyroscopic, electrical
• Weather theory: icing, thunderstorms, fog, frontal systems
• Regulations: 14 CFR 91.167 through 91.185

Resources

• Instrument Rating Files — Partial panel procedures, emergency checklist, system failure decision trees
• Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15B)
• Instrument Rating ACS (FAA-S-8081-66C)

This is the capstone lesson of the Aviator.NYC Instrument Rating program. Everything you have learned across Lessons 1 through 9 comes together here. The focus is twofold: polish your flying skills with practice approaches and system failure scenarios, and prepare your knowledge for the oral exam with a comprehensive review of all ACS areas of operation.

The instrument rating checkride is challenging but predictable. Examiners follow the ACS closely, and the oral exam tests your ability to explain concepts clearly and make sound aeronautical decisions. This lesson gives you the tools to walk in confident.

Lesson Objectives

• Practice all approach types: ILS, LOC, VOR, RNAV/GPS (LPV, LNAV, LNAV/VNAV)
• Demonstrate the complete approach flow: brief, execute, missed approach, hold, re-attempt
• Review all ACS areas of operation for the instrument rating
• Identify and address common checkride failures
• Develop oral exam strategy — how to structure clear, concise answers
• Practice weather minimums decision-making: go/no-go, alternate requirements
• Simulate system failures and demonstrate backup procedures

Background Briefing Topics

• ACS areas of operation — complete overview of all testable areas
• Common checkride failures and how to avoid them
• Oral exam strategy — structuring answers, using references, managing nerves
• Weather minimums review — takeoff, landing, alternate, and personal minimums
• Comprehensive review of Lessons 1-9 key concepts

Simulator Exercise Topics

• Practice approaches at selected checkride airport
• Full FAA-style briefing and checklist execution
• System failure simulation with backup procedures
• Complete approach-missed-hold sequence

Flight Plan

Pilot Preparation

1. Review: All lesson review pages (Lessons 1-9) — answer every oral exam question
2. Read: Instrument Rating ACS (FAA-S-8081-66C) — know every area of operation and task
3. Practice: Brief an approach plate aloud — ILS, LOC, VOR, and RNAV/GPS
4. Review: 14 CFR 91.167 through 91.185 — IFR regulations
5. Prepare: Aircraft documents, maintenance records, and personal logbook for the checkride

ACS Areas of Operation

The Instrument Rating Airman Certification Standards (ACS) organizes the checkride into distinct areas of operation. The examiner will test at least one task from each area. Know what is expected:

Common Checkride Failures

Understanding why candidates fail helps you avoid the same mistakes. These are the most common failure areas on the IFR checkride:

Oral Exam Failures

1. Weather minimums confusion: Not knowing takeoff minimums, landing minimums, or alternate airport requirements (1-2-3 rule). Mixing up DA and MDA.
2. Lost communications (91.185): Unable to explain the route, altitude, and approach procedures to follow after losing comms in IMC
3. Approach plate interpretation: Cannot correctly brief an approach, identify minimum altitudes, or explain the missed approach procedure
4. System knowledge gaps: Cannot explain pitot-static failures, vacuum system, or electrical system operations
5. Regulatory knowledge: Not knowing currency requirements (six approaches, holding, intercepting/tracking in 6 months), required equipment (GRABCARD), or IFR fuel requirements

Flight Test Failures

1. Altitude deviations: Exceeding ±100 ft during normal operations or ±200 ft during partial panel
2. Heading control: Exceeding ±10° during normal operations
3. Approach procedure errors: Descending below minimums, failing to time from FAF, missing step-down fixes
4. Holding pattern errors: Incorrect entry, wrong direction of turn, poor timing
5. Missed approach execution: Hesitation, wrong sequence (should be: power, pitch, configure), flying the wrong procedure

Oral Exam Strategy

The oral exam typically lasts 1.5 to 2.5 hours. Your goal is to demonstrate sound aeronautical decision-making and a working knowledge of IFR operations. Here is how to approach it:

Answer Structure

1. Start with the regulation or definition. "Under 14 CFR 91.175, the pilot must have the runway environment in sight and..."
2. Explain the concept. Show you understand the why, not just the what.
3. Give a practical example. "For example, on an ILS to runway 28 at KLGA, the DA would be..."
4. Know when to use references. You can look things up. Saying "Let me verify that in the AIM" is perfectly acceptable and shows good airmanship.

General Tips

• Do not guess. If you do not know, say so and look it up. Guessing wrong is worse than admitting uncertainty.
• Think before speaking. Take a moment to organize your answer. The examiner is not timing your response speed.
• Use your resources. Bring the AIM, FAR/AIM, approach plates, and your flight planning materials. Knowing where to find information is a skill.
• Stay calm. The examiner wants you to pass. They are evaluating whether you are safe to operate in the IFR system.

Weather Minimums Decision-Making

Weather is the most critical go/no-go decision for IFR pilots. Review these minimums until they are automatic:

Takeoff Minimums

Under 14 CFR Part 91, there are no takeoff minimums for Part 91 pilots (unlike Part 121/135). However, prudent pilots set personal minimums. If you cannot return for an approach, you should be able to reach an alternate.

Landing Minimums

Alternate Airport Requirements (1-2-3 Rule)

An alternate airport is required in the flight plan if, at the destination, from 1 hour before to 1 hour after the ETA, the weather is forecast to be less than 2,000 ft ceiling or 3 SM visibility.

Alternate Airport Minimums

Comprehensive Course Review

Here is a high-level summary of what you should know from each lesson. If any topic feels weak, go back and review that lesson's background briefing and review page.

Lesson 1: IFR Fundamentals

Instrument scan, attitude instrument flying, the six-pack, primary and supporting instruments, control and performance concept.

Lesson 2: IFR Navigation & Departures

VOR navigation, GPS basics, airways, ODP vs SID, IFR clearance (CRAFT), departure procedures.

Lesson 3: Holding Patterns

Direct, teardrop, and parallel entries. Standard vs. non-standard holds. Timing, wind correction, DME/GPS holds.

Lesson 4: Non-Precision Approaches

VOR, LOC, NDB approaches. MDA, Dive & Drive, circling approaches, approach categories, missed approach procedures.

Lesson 5: Precision Approaches

ILS components, glideslope, DA vs DH, false glideslopes, ILS critical areas, Cat I/II/III minimums.

Lesson 6: Advancing with LOC and VOR Approaches

LOC and VOR approach procedures, approach categories, CDI sensitivity, circling approaches.

Lesson 7: STARs, VNAV & Descent Management

STAR structure, VNAV descent planning, speed/altitude constraints, GPS approach type hierarchy.

Lesson 8: Enroute Diversions & Lost Communications

Enroute reroutes, lost communications (91.185), AVE-F altitude rules, EFC timing, diversion decision-making.

Lesson 9: System Failures

Pitot-static failures, vacuum pump failure, electrical emergencies, G1000 reversionary mode, unusual attitudes, partial panel, emergency squawk codes.

ATC Audio Practice

Listen to each ATC audio clip in sequence. Practice your readback before listening to the correct version:

1. Briefing:
2. Pilot Initial Call:
3. ATC Response:
4. ATC Clearance:
5. Pilot Readback:

Checkride-Style Approach Practice

The goal today is to fly approaches exactly as you would on the checkride. The instructor will act as the examiner, issuing instructions and evaluating your performance against ACS standards.

Approach Sequence

1. Precision approach (ILS or LPV): Full procedure — clearance, brief, configure, execute, land or go missed
2. Non-precision approach (LOC or VOR): Dive & Drive to MDA, time from FAF, execute missed approach
3. RNAV/GPS approach: Load, activate, brief, fly — demonstrate GPS approach proficiency
4. Circling approach (if applicable): Fly to circling MDA, maneuver to land on a different runway

Full Briefing Flow

Before every approach, deliver a complete approach briefing. Use this format consistently:

System Failure Scenarios

During the approach sequence, the instructor will introduce system failures at various points:

• Vacuum failure during approach: Transition to partial panel, continue using turn coordinator and compass
• Communication failure: Squawk 7600, follow 91.185 (route: assigned, vectored, expected, filed; altitude: highest of MEA, expected, assigned)
• GPS failure during RNAV approach: Switch to a conventional approach (LOC or VOR) — this is why you should always have a backup approach briefed
• Alternator failure: Load shed, advise ATC, divert to nearest suitable airport

Performance Standards

These are maximum tolerances, not targets. Aim for perfection. On the checkride, consistently flying at the edge of tolerances will concern the examiner even if you technically stay within limits.

Master Oral Exam Question Bank

These 30 questions span all 10 lessons and represent the topics most commonly tested on the IFR oral exam. Practice answering each one aloud, as if speaking to an examiner. If you can answer all of these confidently, you are ready.

Preflight & Planning (Lessons 1-2)

1. What are the currency requirements to act as PIC under IFR? (14 CFR 61.57)
2. What instruments and equipment are required for IFR flight? (GRABCARD)
3. What are the IFR fuel requirements under 14 CFR 91.167?
4. Explain the 1-2-3 rule for alternate airport requirements.
5. What are the standard alternate airport minimums for a precision approach? Non-precision?

Clearances & Departures (Lessons 2-3)

6. Break down an IFR clearance using the CRAFT format. What does each letter stand for?
7. What is the difference between an ODP and a SID?
8. When must you fly an ODP? When can you choose not to?
9. What is a void time clearance and when is it used?

Holding Patterns (Lesson 3)

10. Describe the three holding pattern entry types and when each is used.
11. What is standard holding? Non-standard? What determines each?
12. How do you adjust timing in a hold for wind correction?
13. At what altitude does the outbound leg change from 1 minute to 1.5 minutes?

Non-Precision Approaches (Lesson 4)

14. What is the difference between MDA and DA? Which approach types use which?
15. What is the Dive & Drive technique?
16. When does a circling approach apply? What obstacle clearance does circling MDA provide?
17. What is CDI full-scale deflection on a localizer vs. a VOR?

Precision & GPS Approaches (Lessons 5-6)

18. What are the components of an ILS? What is the glideslope angle?
19. What is a false glideslope and how do you avoid intercepting one?
20. Explain the differences between LPV, LNAV/VNAV, LNAV, and LP approach minimums.
21. What is WAAS? What is RAIM? How do they differ?

Weather (Lesson 7)

22. Decode a METAR and a TAF. What do each of the fields represent?
23. What are the differences between AIRMET, SIGMET, and Convective SIGMET?
24. What are the conditions required for structural icing? What types of icing exist?

En Route & Lost Comms (Lesson 8)

25. Explain the lost communications procedure under 14 CFR 91.185. What route do you fly? What altitude? When do you begin an approach?
26. What is the MEA? MOCA? MRA? MCA? How do they differ?

System Failures (Lesson 9)

27. If the static port becomes blocked, what happens to the altimeter, VSI, and ASI?
28. If the pitot tube is completely blocked (ram air and drain), how does the ASI behave during a climb?
29. Which instruments are vacuum-powered? Which are electrically powered? What does each failure affect?
30. Describe the recovery procedure for a nose-high unusual attitude. A nose-low unusual attitude. Why is the sequence different?

Checkride Day Tips

Before the Checkride

• Get a good night's sleep. Fatigue degrades decision-making and flying ability. Do not cram the night before.
• Check the weather early. Know the conditions at the checkride airport and your alternate. Have a go/no-go decision ready.
• Prepare your paperwork: Pilot certificate, medical, photo ID, logbook with instructor endorsements, IACRA application, aircraft documents (AROW), maintenance records showing VOR check within 30 days
• File a flight plan. Have it ready to review with the examiner. This shows organization and professionalism.
• Bring your resources: FAR/AIM, approach plates, current charts, E6B or electronic flight computer, plotter, knee board

During the Oral

• Listen carefully to each question. Answer what is asked — do not volunteer information that could open new lines of questioning.
• Use your references. Looking things up shows good airmanship. Guessing is worse than saying "I would look that up."
• If you do not know, say so. Then explain how you would find the answer.
• Stay professional. The examiner is evaluating your judgment as much as your knowledge.

During the Flight

• Brief every approach out loud. Even if the examiner does not ask. It demonstrates professionalism and thoroughness.
• Fly the airplane first. When something unexpected happens, maintain altitude and heading. Then troubleshoot.
• Communicate. Tell the examiner what you are doing and why. "I am descending to MDA now. I will level at 580 feet."
• If you make a mistake, correct it. The examiner is looking at how you handle errors, not whether you are perfect.
• Use the checklist. Every time. The examiner will notice if you skip it.

Final Resources

• Instrument Rating Files — Full checkride reference packet — all approach plates, charts, and procedures from Lessons 1-9
• Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15B)
• Instrument Procedures Handbook (FAA-H-8083-16B)
• Instrument Rating ACS (FAA-S-8081-66C)
• Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)